The Life And Times Of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi

THE LIFE AND TIMES OF
SHAIKH AHMAD SIRHINDI

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF
THE DEGREE OF

Bottor of $i)t(ooopt)P

IN

HISTORY

Under the Supervision of

Professor Khaliq Ahmad Nizami

BY

IQBAL SABIR

CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDY
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA)

1990

ABSTRACT

The Naqshbandi silsilah occupies an important place in
the annals of Islam in Indian sub-continent. For nearly two
centuries/ i.e. 17th and 18th, it was the principal spiritual
order in India and its influence permeated far and deep into
Indo-Muslim life. Though many Naqshbandi saints came to India
and associated themselves with the royal courts of Babur,
Humayun and Akbar, the credit of really . organizing and
propagating the Naqshbandi silsilah in this country goes to
Khwaja Muhammad Baqi Billah. He not only actively strove to
popularize Islamic teachings in the masses, but played a
significant role in shaping the religious outlook of the
ruling class. A new phase in the history of the Naqshbandi
silsilah began when Khwaja Baqi Billah reached India from
Kabul, his native town.

Baqi Billah's Khalifa and chief successor, Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi known as 'Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani' holds a very
special and significant position among the Muslim divines of
medieval India. He played most important role in
disseminating the ideology and practices of the Naqshbandi
silsilah in India and Jahangir found his disciples in every
city of the Mughal empire. For centuries he has been

considered one of the most outstanding sufi teachers and
thinkers of the sub-continent.

Born in 971 A.H./ 1563-4 A.D. in Sirhindi, Shaikh Ahmad
Faruqi, a descendant of the second Pius Caliph Umar al-Faruq,
grew up to manhood during the reign of Akbar. He was deeply
perturbed at the religious experiments of Akbar and left no
stone unturned in challenging the situation created by
political interference in religious life. He criticised
severely the ulama-i-su ' (the worldly minded ulama ) and
challenged the validity of principles of Iitihad
(interpretation of Islamic law), followed at the court. In
the beginning of Jahangir's reign he established close
contacts with eminent Mughal nobles through correspondence
and made them realize the nature of heretical developments at
the court. He deputed his disciples and khalifas to spread
his spiritual mission in every important city and town of the
Mughal empire. A large, number of ulama, sufis, scholars,
nobles, civil & military officials, and common people joined
his mystic fold. His success was most marked in the reign of
Jahangir, when many of the leading nobles at the Mughal court
became his devotees. The Shaikh also tried to effect certain
religious reforms in the royal army. The emperor,
consequently, summoned Shaikh Ahmad in 1029 A.H./ 1619 A.D.
to his royal court and ordered his imprisonment in the fort
of Gwalior. The saint remained there for about a year. On

his release he spent three years with the imperial army.

As a sufi Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi preached the importance
of spiritual values in man's life by reviving people's
interest in the Shariat i.e. the laws of Islam. He attacked
Shaikh Muliyyiddin ibn-i-Arabi's Wahdat-ul-Wujud (Unity of
Being) by declaring it one of the main causes of weakening
the distinctive features of faiths and creating an,,
atmosphere of moral holiday. His chief contribution to the
sufi thought in Islam was his enunciation of a counter theory
Wahdat-ush-Shahud (Unity of Appearance), and the way he
defined mystic concepts pertaining to hal (state.) and roagaroat,
(stations). He opposed bid'at (innovation or deviation from
the practice of the Prophet of Islam) and declared that no
spiritual progress was possible without closely following the
path indicated by the Prophet, i.e. sunnah. ; ’All his mystical
ideas and practices are closely concerned with the central
traditions of Islam. For this reason his contemporaries, both
ulama and mashaikh (sufis)/ accepted Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi as
the most important religio-spiritual leader of the Muslims

V

and addressed him with the little of ' Muiaddid-i-Alf-Thani '.
the renewer of the second millennium of Islam. He continued
his mystic activities until his death in 1034 A.H./ 1624 A.D.
in Sirhind. Shaikh Ahmad's works especially his letters in
three volumes known as Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani hold an

important position in Muslim mystical literature throughtout
the Islamic world.

Many contemporary and later sources in Arabic and
Persian apart, a number of works in English, Urdu and other
languages have appeared so far which throw light on Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi. However, the need of a comprehensive work
dealing with all aspects of his life and thought, and his
impact on political and mystical life of the period has been
a desideratumJ The present thesis is an humble attempt to
fill this gap. On one hand it contains the complete
biographical details of the Shaikh, and on the other it
analyses in detail his reaction to Akbar's religious
experiments and his role in the Mughal politics. A complete
survey has been made here of Shaikh Ahmad's mystical and
religious activities. His conception of Tawhid and the theory
of taideed and millennium have also been thoroughly
discussed. The thesis also deals with the initial history of
the Naqshbandi silsilah in India and throws light on the life
and ideology of Khwaja Baqi Billah. While discussing Shaikh
Ahmad's reaction to Akbar's religious experiment and his role
in the Mughal political, the religious policy and experiments
of emperor Akbar, and the religio-political condition of
Jahangir's reign have been discussed in details. Besides, the
thesis starts with a critical survey of the milieu in which

the social, political and religious attitudes of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi were shaped.

Accordingly^ the thesis comprises an introduction and
nine chapters. The first chapter entitled 'milieu' gives the
detail accounts of various to religious and socio-political
movements of the period and tries to show their positive or
negative impact on Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. In this connection
a brief survey of the Mahdawi Movement, the activities of the
Christian missionaries in and outside the Mughal court,
increasing influence of Hindu ladies (queens), officials and
nobles on Akbar, the activities of the Bhakti saints, and the
impact of Afeul Fazl and his family on the emperor etc. has
been made critically. The second chapter throws light on the
early life of the Shaikh whereas the third one gives the
details of his joining the mystic fold of Khwaja Baqi Billah
into the Naqshbandi order. This chapter also highlights the
biographical details and mystical teachings of the Khwaja,
and discusses his relations with the Mughal nobles. Chapter
four presents Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi as an organizer of the

V

Naqshbandi silsilah in India. In this chapter a complete
survey of his khalifas ' mystical activities as well as
missionary work in different cities of the sub-continent has
been made. The fifth chapter dealing with the religious
. throught and mystical ideology of the Shaikh thoroughly

discusses Wahdat-ush-Shuhud and the concept of ta jde ed and
millennium. Chapter six throws light on Shaikh Ahmad's
reaction to Akbar's religious experiments, while the seventh
chapter discusses the Shaikh's relations with Jahangir and
the Mughal nobles. In both these chapters, Ahmad Sirhindi's
method of working against Akbar's attitude towards Islam and
the Muslims, and influencing the thought and policies of
Jahangir apart, policy and experiments of Akbar, and the
religio-political condition of Jahangir's reign have been
discussed in detail. The eight chapter describes Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi's last days and death. Chapter nine, the last one,
highlights the impact of the saint on Indo-Muslim mystic
ideology. The thesis also consists of a chronology of the
Shaikh's life and the bibliography of the select works on
both Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, and the social, political and
religious condition and personalities of the period.

This study is based a critical survey of the Naqshbandi
sources as well as the religio political treatises of the
period, particularly the works of Khwaja Baqi Billah, the
maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani of Shaikh Ahmad himself, the
Zubdat-ul-Muaamat of Khwaja Hashim Kishmi which . occupies a
place of precedence in the biographical as well other type of
literature on Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi produced in India, and
the works of the Shaikh's sons and the khalifas . We have

J

7

benefited from the other chronicles also such as Ain-i-Akbari
and Akbar Nama of Abul Fazl, Muntakhab-uf-Tawarikh of Abdul
Qadir Badayuni, Tuzuk-i-Jahanairi of Emperor Jahangir and
the Ma'athir-ul-Umara 1 of Shah Nawaz Khan. Moreover, the
ideas and arguments of the modern writers and historians in
their works in English and under have been completely
noticed.

S£CT/Gft

JDated : 5.1.1991

Ji R T I F 1 C A T E

t- -

This is to certify that Mr. Iqbal Sabir

has completed his\ research under ray supervision.

\

This thesis prepared by him on ‘The Life and
Times of Shaikh Abroad Sirhindi' is his original
work and is fit for subraissir^ r ~r the award of
Ph.H. degree in History.

a

(Professors K.a. Wizami)
Supervisor

CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction

Chapter-I
The Milieu

Chapter-II

Birth , Early Life and Education
Chapter-Ill

Initiation into the Naqshbandi order
By Khwaja Baqi Billah

Chapter-IV

As > Organizer of the Naqshbandi Silsilah
in India

Chapter-V

Religious Thought and Mystical Ideology
Chapter-VI

Reaction to Akbar's Religious Experiments^

< »

Chapter-VII

Relation with Jahanqir and th«=> Noblco

Chapter-VIII
Last Days and Death

Chapter-IX

Impact of Shaikh Ahmad on Indo-Muslim
Mystic Ideology.

Appendix-A

Chronology

Page No.

1-17

18-75

76-97

98-137

138-170

171-199

200-267

Zb8-312

313-319

320-323

324-328

Appendix-B

Bibliography

329-344

PREFACE

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, popularly known as 'Mujaddid-i-
Alf-i-Thani', holds a pre-eminent position in the history of
Muslim mystical movement in India. He was the first Muslim
saint-scholar of the sub-continent whose thought and movement
reached far beyond the Indian frontiers and influenced Muslim
scholars and saints in different regions. His spiritual
descendants, ( Khalifas ), zealously participated in the
organization of the 'Naqshbandi-mujaddidi' silsilah in India,
Afghanistan, Central Asia, Turkey, Arabia, Egypt, Moracco,
and Indonesia.

In India, apart from attracting a large number of
Muslims to his mystic fold. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi left a deep
impact upon the contemporary ulama, sufis and the ruling
elite. Jahangir, though a critic of his views and activities
in the beginning, developed respectful attitude towards him.
Many Mughal nobles, joined his mystic discipline, and played
significant role in changing the atmosphere of the court in
accordance with the ideology of Shaikh Ahmad. He stood for
strict and close adherence to the Quran and the Sunnah of the
Prophet. His concept of Wahdat-ush-Shuhud (Unity of
Appearance), changed the entire gamut of Muslim mystical
thought and gave a new orientation to Tasawwuf . His works.

particularly the collections of his letters, ( Maktubat-i-
Imam-i-Rabbani ), have been a veritable source of religious
and spiritual guidance through the centuries. A number of
works dealing with his biography, religious thought, mystic
ideology, political role and organizational activities have
appeared in Arabic, Persian, English and Urdu during last
four hundred years.

/^The present thesis is an attempt to study Shaikh
Ahmad's thought' and personality in the special context of his
time.' It provides an analysis of Sirhindi's political role,
mystical thought and revivalist as well as organizational
efforts/^In this connection I consider it my pleasant duty to
acknowledge my deep indebtedness to my esteemed supervisor
Professor Khaliq Ahmad Nizami, former Chairman and Director
of our Department and a renowned scholar of medieval Indian
History. It could not have been possible for me to bring this
work to completion without his special care, ungruding help,
affectionate guidance and valuable suggestions. He spared his
precious time in checking the work and discussing the
problems related to it. I feel honour and good fortune by
completing my thesis under his inspiring supervision. I find
me unable to express my gratitude and obligation to him into
words. I have always received a paternal affection and
kindness from him. May Allah give him long life so that we.

the seekers of knowledge, may benefit from his inspiring
personality and scholarship.

I am also specially indebted to Professor Zameeruddin
Siddiqui, Chairman, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of
History, A.M.U., Aligarh. He has always been compassionate to
me and taken much interest in solving my problems. Had he not
given me his moral support, it would have been impossible for
me to stay and carry on my research work for several years at
Aligarh. There are no words with me to express my deep
sincerity and thankfulness to him for his generous and kind
attitude towards me.

My grateful thanks are due to Professor I.H. Siddiqui
whose scholarly advice and suggestions have always been a
useful addition in my knowledge. I am also obliged to my
uncle Dr. Iqbal Ahmad reader in the English Deptt. of our
University for his suggestions to solve my linguistic
problem. It is also a matter of great pleasure for me to
mention Mr. S. Farrukh Jalali with whom I frequently
discussed the various aspects of my research topic. He drew
my attention to many interesting points and provided me with
valuable information. I am also grateful to the authorities
of the Indian Council of Historical Research for awarding me
the ICHR Fellowship for one year.

I must not fail to acknowledge the affection and
kindness of Dr. M. Iqbal Majaddidi of the M.A.O. College,
Lahore (Pakistan), who, from time to time, sent me many
original Persian sources and modern works alongwith his own
books and articles regarding my Ph.D. topic. Professor Ghulam
Mustafa Khan and Prof. M. Masud Ahmad, both of them renowned
scholars of Pakistan, also deserve my special thanks. My
grateful thanks are also due to my another uncle Professor
Saiyid Sakhi Ahmad Hashmi Sandeelvi, former Head of the
Deptt. of Urdu, Sindh University, Hyderabad (Pakistan), for
supplying the brochures and treatises of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi, published in Pakistan, to me.

My deep indebtedness is due to Mr. Jalal Abbas Abbasi,
the former Librarian of our Departmental Library and
presently an assistant librarian in Maulana Azad Library, for
his kind and brotherly attitude towards me throughout the
period I have spent in Aligarh. I am also thankful to
Mr. M. Yusuf Siddiqui of our Research Library who too treated
me as his younger brother and helped and, cooperated with me
at every moment.

I shall be guilty if I don't acknowledge the coui.tsy
and kindness of the staff members of the Research Library of
our Department. They cooperated with me at every step and

made all books available whenever needed. My thanks are due
to all of them. I am also thankful to the whole ministerial
as well as administrative staff of our Department. Moreover,
the staff of Maulana Azad Library, especially its Persian,
Urdu and Manuscripts sections, and the seminar libraries of
the Deptts. of Islamic studies and Sunni Theology also
deserve to be thanked.

My sincere regards and grateful thanks are due to all
my well-wishers and friends, both in and outside Aligarh, for
showing their affection, sympathy and help to me during my
research work. I am thankful to Mr. Suhail Ahmad who typed
this thesis with fuC^.1 cooperation. My thanks are also due to
my cousin Mohammed Rishad Faridi for his help during typing
days.

It would not be a complete acknowledgment if I don't
mention my gratefulness to my parents, particularly my father
Mr. Qazi Ghulam Sabir Qadeeri Sadeelvi who eagerly bore all
difficulties and problems in this process. Infact it is my
father who first of all advised me to undertake research on
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, (Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani). I pray to
Allah for enabling me to come up to his expectations and
serve him whole-heartedly. I am also thankful to my younger
sister, a research scholar in Persian in our University, for

her keen interest in the completion of my Ph.D. thesis. I
wish her good luck.

Besides, I think it necessary on this occasion to
remember and pay homage to my first teacher (late) Qazi Mir
Muhammad Jaisi whose scholarly radiating personality has
deeply influenced me in my boyhood. The marks of his sacred
memory will always encourage me for the acquisition of
knowledge. May Allah confer His grace and favours on him in
the life hereafter.

Finally, and above all, I must record my deep sense of
obligations to Maulana Saiyid Abdur Rasheed Saheb of Karachi,
(Late) Maulana Shah Wali Muhammad Saheb Qadeeri Bareilwi and
Maulana Saiyid Abdul Qadeer Miyan Saheb Pilibhiti whose
blessings and benedictions made me see this day.

Aligarh

(IQBAL SABIR)

Date:

7 —-/' 1991

INTRODUCTION

i

INTRODUCTION

The Naqshbandi silsilah^ Occupies an important place
in the history of Islam in Indian sub-continent. According to
Professor K.A. Nizami for nearly two centuries it was the
principal spiritual order in India and its influence
permeated far and deep into Indo-Muslim life.^ The
establishment of the Mughal empire in India provided the
followers of the silsilah with an opportunity to introduce
their doctrines and practices into this country.-^ We know

1. The Naqshbandi silsilah is an offshoot of the

"Silsilah-i-Khwajagan" which was organised in Turkistan
by Khwaja Ahmad Ata Yaswi (ob. 1166 A.D,), whom the
Turks respectfully refer to as "Hazrat-i-Turkistan". In
the fourteenth century, Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshband
(ob.1389), a spiritual descendant of Khwaja Ata,

revitalized the silsilah and popularized it among the
Turks and Mongols of Central Asia and 'Mawara-un-Nahr'.
His impact on the silsilah-i-Khwajagan was so great that
after his name the silsilah came to be known as
Naqshbandi silsilah.

2. K.A. Nizami, State and Culture in Medieval India , Delhi
1985, p.160.

3. It is to be pointed out in this connection that the
Mughal rulers ever since the time of Amir Timur had been
very much devoted to the Naqshbandi silsilah and its
saints. Timur built the tomb of Khwaja Ata and paid
respectful "isits to his shrine. He treated Khwaja
Bahauddin Naqshband with profound respect. His
descendants are reported to have married into the
saint's family. They used to receive Khwaja Ubaiduilah
Ahrar, a spiritual descendant of Khwaja Bahauddin
Naqshband, "standing at a distance with their eyes fixed
on the ground". They also sometimes referred their
internecine conflicts to him for arbitration. Babur also
inherited from his father Umar Shaikh Mirza, who was a

contd..

from contemporary sources that many Naqshbandi saints came to
India and associated themselves with the royal courts of
Babur, Humayun, and Akbar.* However, their activities seem to

f.note contd. from prev.

disciple of Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar, a deep regard for
the Naqshbandi saints and a feeling of close spiritual
affinity with them. (See, State and Culture in Medieval
India , p-. 161) . This tradition prevailed from generation
to generation in the Mughal rulers of India as well.
Refering to 1 ' the Naqshbandi influence upon Emperor
Aurangzeb, a distinguished Chishti saint of the 17th
18th century, Shah Kalimullah of Delhi, writes in a
letter to one of his Khalifas in the Deccan who is
trying in vain to influence the his (Aurangzeb's)
religious outlook, "The Emperor of Hindustan is a
descendant of Amir Timur and Amir Timur was spiritually
attached to Shah-i-Naqshband. These Turanians, all and
every one of them, are connected with the Naqshbandi
order and they do not attach any value to any other
silsilah. 11 ( Maktubat-i-Kalimi, Delhi 1301, p.75) . For

details see State and Culture in Medieval India, p.160).
Moreover, when the age of the Great Mughals was over and
the Mughal Empire was nothing more than the phantom of a
forgotten glory, another outstanding Naqshbandi saint
Shah Waliullah of Delhi exercised great influence on
contemporary Mughal rulers and politics. (For his
details see. State and Culture in Medieval India PP,
174-76) .

1. Khwaja Abdush Shahid was the first Naqshbandi saint who
came to India and stayed at the court of Emperor Babur
who held him in high esteem. For details see Babur Nama ,
Bombay 1308, p. 229. Badayuni, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh .
Vol. Ill, Calcutta 1869, p.40; Dara Shukoh, Safinat-ul-
Auliya . Kanpur, 1884, p....

Khwaja Abdush Shahid was followed by some other
Naqshbandi saints of Central Asia who came to the court
of Babur.

Khwaja Khwand Mahmud Shihabuddin, the grandson of
Khwaja Obaidullah Ahrar, also is reported to have
visited India. But he could not meet Babur at Delhi due
to his sudden death before his arrival. The saint

contd.

3

have been confined to the royal circles. In fact, the real
organizer and propagator of the Naqshbandi silsilah in India,
was Khwaja Muhammad Baqi Billah. 1 He not only actively strove
to popularize Islamic teachings in the masses, but played
significant role in shaping the religious outlook of the
ruling class. He left a deep impact upon medieval Indian
society and changed completely the mystic environment in the
capital.2 Professor Nizami says, "A new phase in the history
of the Naqshbandi silsilah began when Khwaja Baqi Billah
reached India from Kabul". 1

Among the Khalifas of Khwaja Baqi Billah, Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi, commonly known as 'Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani', holds a

f.note contd. from prev.

therefore met Humayun who received him with great
honour.

Moreover, Emperor Akbar in early years of his
reign, was also devoted to the Naqshbandi saints and
paid great respect to them. He accorded a warm welcome
to Khwaja- Shahid when he reached India from Samarqand in
967/1559-60. For details see, State and Culture in
Medieval Indie, . p. 162.

1. J. Spencer Trimingham, Sufi Orders in Islam # London
1971, p.94.

2. K.A. Nizami, Havat-i-Shaikh Abdual Hag Muhadith
Dehlawai . Delhi 1964, p. 138.

Also, Shaikh Muhammad Ikram, Rud-j-Kausar , Delhi-
1987 (reprint) pp. 202-3.

3. State and Cultuure in Medieval India, p. 163.

very special and significant position. He played an important

role in

disseminating

the

ideology

and practices of

the

Naqshbandi

silsilah in

this

country.

and Jahangir found

his

disciplies

in every

city

of the

Mughal empire.^

For

centuries

he has been

considered

one of the

most

outstanding sufi teachers and thinkers of India. 2

Born in 971 A.H./1563-4 A.D. in Sirhind-^, Shaikh Ahmad
Faruqi grew up to manhood during the reign of Akbar. He was
deeply perturbed at the religious experiments of Akbar and
left no stone unturned in challenging the situation created
by political inference in religious life. He criticised
severely the ulama-i-su (the worldly minded ulama ) and
challenged the validity of principles of Iitihad ,
(interpretation of Islamic law), followed at the court. In
the beginning of Jahangir's reign he established close
contacts with eminent Mughal noble through correspondence and
made them realize the nature of heretical developments at the

1. Tuzuk-i-iahangiri , Aligarh, 1864, p.272.

2. For details see Abul Kalam Azad, Tazkira , Delhi (Sahitya
Academy), 1968, pp.263-64.

Sir Muhammad Iqbal, The R econstructi on of Religious
Thought in Islam, Lahore, 1974, pp.192-93.

3. Now a famous town in the modern Patiala district of
Punjab. For the historical background of this town see,
Fauja Singh, ed. Sirhind Through the Ages , Patiala,
1972.

D

court.He deputed his disciples and Khalifas to spread his
spiritual mission in every important city and town of the
Mughal empire. AS-large number of ulama , sufis, scholars,
nobles, civil and military officials, and common people
joined his mystic fold. His success was most marked in the
reign of Jahangir, when many of the leading nobles at the
Mughal Court became his devotees. The Shaikh also tried to
effect certain religious reforms in the royal army. The
emperor, consequently, summoned Shaikh Ahmad in 1029 A.H./
1619 A.D. to his royal court and ordered his imprisonment in
the fort of Gwalior. The saint remained there for about a
year. On his release he spent three years with the Imperial
army.

' As a sufi Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi preached the importance
of spiritual values in man's life by reviving people's
interest in the shariat , i.e. the laws of Islam. He attacked
Ibn-i-Arabi's Wahadat-ul-Wuiud (Unity of Being) by declaring
it one of the main causes of weakening the distinctive
features of faiths and creating an atmosphere of moral
holiday. His chief contribution to the sufi-thought in Islam
was his enuniciation of a counter theory, popularly known as
Wahdat-ush-Shuhud , and the way he defined mystic concepts
pertaining to hal (state) and maqamat (stations). He opposed
bid 1 at (innovation or deviation from the practice of the

6

Prophet) and declared that no spiritual progress was possible
without closely following the path indicated by the Prophet#
i.e. Sunnah. All his mystical ideas and practices are closely
concerned with the central traditions of Islam. For this
reason, his contemporaries, both ulama and sufis, accepted
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi as the most important religio-spiritual
leader of the Muslims and addressed him with the title of
Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani . the renewer of the second milllennium
of Islam.* He passed the concluding years of his lifeat
Sirhind where he continued his sufi activities until his
death in 1034 A.H./ 1624 A.D.^

A number of works have appeared on Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi during four hundred years. The Zubdat-ul-Maqamat of
Khwaja Hashim Kishmi and the Hazarat-ul-Quds of Mulla
Badruddin Sirhind Reserve special mention in this regard. The
former, work appeared within three years of Shaikh Ahmad's
death whereas the Hazarat-ul-Quds was completed in 1052/1642.
The authors of both these works owed spiritual allegiance to
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. Since then a number of Muslim and

1. As such Ahmad Sirhindi also occupies a pre-eminent
position in the annals of Islam mysticism. lie has
equally been popular outside the Indian frontier. His
letters ( maktubat ) have been translated into the Arabic
and Turkish languages.

\

2 .

See Appendix 'A'

non-Muslim authors have produced works - books and articles -
in different languages on various aspects of his life,
thought, spiritual experiences and practices, and his
contribution to the Mughal politics. In modern time the works
of Professor K.A. Nizami, Shaikh Muhammad Ikram, Ghulam
Mustafa Khan, Zaid Abul Hasan Faruqi, Manzoor Nu'mani, Abul
Hasan Ali Nadvi, Muhammad Masu'd Ahmad, Muhammad Farman, Shah
Zawwar Husain, Yohanan Friedmann and Athar Abbas Rizvi have
attracted the notice of scholars on this theme. Besides,
there are other works also in English and Urdu which throw
some light on Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. However, them need of a
comprehensive work dealing with all aspects of his life and
thought, and his impact on political and myustical life of

the period has been a desideratum. This work is an humble

>

attempt to fill this gap. On one hand it contains the
complete biographical details of the Shaikh and on the other
it analyses in detail his reaction to Akbar's religious
experiments and his role in the Mughal politics.A complete
survey has been made here of Shaikh Ahma'd's mystical and
religious activities. His conception of Tawhid and the theory
of taideed and millennium have also been thoroughly
discussed. The thesis aso deals with the initial history of
the Naqshbandi silsilah in India and throws light on the life
and ideology of Khwaja Baqi Billah, the spiritual preceptor

of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. While discussing ShaikhAhmad 1 s
reaction to Akbar religious experiments and his role in
Mughal politics/ the religious policy and experiments of
Emperor Akbar and the religio - political condition of
Jahangir's reign have been discussed in details. Besides/
the thesis starts with a critical survey of the milieuin
which the social/ political and religious attitude of Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi were shaped.

This study is based on a critical study of the
Niqshbandi sources as well as the religio-political treatises
of the period. So far as the teachings and ideology of
Khwaja Baqi Billah are concerned, his letters, (inaktubat) ,
conversations, (maifuzat), and poetic verses, (in the form of
ruba 1 ivat and mathnawi ), have been our main source of
information.* As Baqi Billah's mystic thought played a
significant role in Sirhindi’s ideological development, these
works are of great value and provide an insight into the
Naqshbandi spiritual process. Besides, through these sources,
especially the letters of the Khwaja, we are also informed of
the religious ferment of Akbar's time. These also reveal Baqi

1. Khwaja Baqi Billah's letters, malfuzat and poetic verses
have been published in a collected form, known as
Kullivat-i-Khwaia Baqi Billah . with an introduction’ by
Zaid Abul Hasan Faruqi, from Lahore in 1968.

9

Billah's dissatisfaction with the general condition of those
days. These letters and malfuzat incidentally reflect Shaikh
Ahmad's developing image in the eyes of his pir and present
him as a great future personality. 1

The most important source for the thought of Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi is his collection of letters. He wrote
numerous letters to his contemporary ulama . sufis, nobles,
and others. He even addressed the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
These letters, known as Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani hold an
important position in Muslim mystical literature. The
maktubat provide lot of information on religious, mystical,
social and political themes. Professor Shaikh Abdur Rashid
says that the letters of 'Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani' cover a
vast field ranging from the technology and metaphysics .to
politics and missionary activities. According to him these
letters are a mirror of the intellectual and spiritual
ferment which swept over the spritually saturated Indian
Muslim Society.^ These maktubat form a very important source
of Indian History and reflect the socio-political environment
of Akbar and Jahangir's reign. These also shed a flood of

1. Ibid., p.130.

2. CH. Philips, ed. " Historians of India, Pakistan and
Cevlone ". London 1961, p. 132

10

light on the revivalist efforts of the Shaikh^- and his
followers and disciples primarily on mystical subjects. 3
Inshort these letters are inseparai ly related to the
circumstances in which these were written. Moreover/ these
letters reveal the Shaikh's powerful exposition of his ideas.

These letters run into three volumes. The first
volume of the maktubat . entitled Durr-ul Maarifat . was
compiled by Shaikti'Yar Muhammad Jadid Badakhshi in 1025 A.H.
/ 1616 A.D. It contains 313 letters. The second volume,
Nur-ul-Khalaiq . was compiled by Khwaja Abdul Haiy in 1028
A.H. / 1619 A.D. and comprises 99 letters. The third volume
known as Maarifat-ul-Haaaia . consisting of 114 letters, was
compiled by the author of Zubdat-ul-Maaamat in 1033 A.H./
1623 A.D. 3

1. Zawwar Hussain, Hazrat Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani . Karachi,
1975, p. 683

2. Murtuza Hasan, Letters of Shaikh Ahmad (A New Source of
Historical Study), " The Proceedings of the Indian
History Congress ". Partna Session, 1946, p.274.

3. Besides, the Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani have frequen-tly

been published, from Lucknow, (Nawal Kishore), in 1877;
Delhi, (Matba-i-Ahmadi), 1871 and (Matba-i-Mutadawai),
1873, Amritsar, 1916; Lahore, 1964; and Istanbule,
(Turkey), 1977 which has been utilized in the present

thesis.

Moreover/ the following works - brochures and treatises
- of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi have also been utilized here.
Ithbat-un-Nabuwwah 1 , in Arabic, presents the familiar
arguments to prove the necessity of prophecy in general and
the Prophecy of Muhammad (Peace and blessing be upon him) in
particular. It also contains Ahmad Sirhindi's views of the
situation of Islam in India during the reign of Akbar. 2 The
brochure is reported to have been produced in 990-1 A.ti. /
1582-3 A.D. at Agara. 3

Risalah-i-Radd-i-Rawafiz . 4 persian treatise, written in 1002
A.H./ 1593-4 A.D., 3 in refutation of Shias and their

i

religion beliefs, discusses the greatness and importance of
Khulafa-i-Thalatha . first three Caliphs - viz. Abu Bakr
Siddiq (Ob. 13 A.H. / 634 A.D.), Umar al-Faruq (Ob. 24 A.H. /

645 A.D.) and Usman-al-Ghani (ob. 35 A.H. / 6565 A.D.)^, and

*

prove the superiority of Abu-Bakr over all the companions of

1. Published from Karachi 1383 A.H. Lahore 1385 A.H.

2. Yohanan Friedmann, Shavkh Ahmad Sirhindi , MacGil, 1971,
p. 5.

3. Zawwar Husain, op. cit, pp. 676-77.

4. Published from Rampur 1384 A.H. / 1964 A.D. Lahore 1964
A.D.

5. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p. 131.

6. Shah Waliullah has thoroughly discussed the pious
Caliph's significance and greatness in Islamic History
and beliefs. See, Izalat-ul-Khifaun Khilafat-il-Khulafa
(Urdu Translation), Vol I, Karachi, n.d. pp. 585-616.

12

the Holy Prophet. 1 It throws light on different groups of
Shias, such as Bayana, Mughira, Hanahiya, Mansuriya,
Khilabiya, Gharalia, Zimmiya, Yunusiya, Mafuzia, Batiniya,
Zaidiya, Imamiya, Kamiliya and Ismailiya, and describes their
religions ideology.2 it also highlights Ibn-i-Saba's
hypocritical attitude towards Islam and Ali-, the fourth pious
Caliph,3 and described the early history of the Shias in
India. One can easily know as to how the Shia influence was

r»

increasing in Akoar's court.Shah Waliullah is said to have
written a commentary on this work.4

1. For detailed study in this connection see, Maktubat-i-
Imam-i-Rabbani . Vol. I, letter 59 and Vol II, Letter 36
Saeed Ahmad Akbarabadi, Siddia-i-Akbar . Delhi 1957 A.D.,
p. 131. S. Muinul Haqq, 1 Hazarat Abu Bakr . Lahore, 1947,
pp. 225-31.

2. Ibn-i-Khaldun also gives a detailed description of these
sorts of Shias. See groups. Muqaddemah Ibn-i-Khaldoon
(Urdu Translation), Karachi, pp. 225-31.

3. In this connection the following works may also be
consulted for a detailed study.

Shah Abdul Aziz, Tuhfa-i-Asna-i-Ashriva , (Matba-i-
Ahmadi), Delhi 1266 A.H., pp. 205-211/ S.A. Rahim, ed.
Fitna-i-Ibn-i-Saba . Multan 1372/ (Maulana) Muhammad Ali,
Early Caliphate . Lahore 1932, A.D., pp. 220-35, 275./

P.K. Hitti, History fif Arabs . Tokyo 1977, pp. 247-
49./ Norman Hollister, The Shia of India , London, 1953,
pp. 15, 24./ I. Friedlnader, Abdullah Ibn-i-Saba . 1909
The Encyclopaedia of Islam . (New Edition), Vol I,
London, 1960, p.51.

4. Zawwar Husain, op. cit., p. 677.

Muhammad Farman, Havat-i-Muiaddid . Lahore
254-59.

Abul Hasan Zaid Faraqi, Hazrat Muiaddid
Naqedin , Delhi 1977, pp. 47-49.

1958, pp.
Aur Unke

13

Risalah-i-Tahliliva *. - an Arabic treatise, written in 1010
A.H./ 1601-02 A.D., deals with the importance of "Kalima-i-
Taiyyaba", Muslim confession of faith. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
is reported to have written this brochure at a time when
Akbar and his followers had removed "Muhammad is the Prophet
of God" from the 'Kalima' and introduced new confession
"There is no God but God and Akbar is God's
representative". 1 2 3 The Risalah sheds a flood of light on
monotheism (Tawhid) and prophecy (Risalat).

Mabda-wa-Maad 2 - a Persian work, written between 1008/1599-
1600 and 1019/1610, contains fifty four short chapters
dealing with a variety of sufi subjects, such as Bai’at,
" Outb-i-Irshad ". " Adab-i-Tariaat ". " Kamalat-i-Auliva ".

1. Published from Karachi 1384 / 1964.

2. For detail see, Badayuni, Maktakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.
II, Calcutta, 1869, 273 The Cambridge History of India .
Vol. IV, Delhi 1957, p. 131./ V.A. Smith, Akbar the
Great Muahal . Delhi 1966, pp. 154-59.

Muhammad Aslam, Din-i-Ilahi aur Uska Pasmanzar . Delhi
1969, pp. 182-84.

3. Published from Delhi 1307 A.H./ Kanpur 1891 A.D./ Amrit¬
sar 1912 A.D./ Karachi, 1388 A.H.

14

" Haqjqat-i-Kaba ", and " Haqjqat-i-Qurart ", etc. 1 Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi frequently refers to this brochure in the first
volume of his Makiufrflt. Both Hazarat-ul-Quds and gubdat-Ul".

r

Maqamat quote extensively from it.^

Maarif-i-Laduniva ^, a mystic work written in Persian, is
very similar in structure and content to Mabda-o-Maad . It is
not dated and one can only say with certainty that it was
written after Shaikh Ahmad had joined the Naqshbandi order .4
It defines the secrets of Divine Attributes and sheds
interesting light on the hidden meanings of some Quranic
verses.5

Makashifat-i-Ainiva . 6 (also known as Makashifat-i-Ghaibiva ),
is a collection of different Ijazat namas, written authority

or permission, the Mujaddid gave to his Khalifas first time

\

1. Friedmann, op.cit., p.5/ Zawwar Hussain, Hazarat
Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani . pp. 680-1/ Muhammad Farman,
Hayat-i-Muiaddid . p. 253.

2. Friedmann, "S ha yKh Ahmad Sirhindi ", p. 5/Z u bda fc - u J,-
Maaamat . pp. 141-4, 170-4.

3. Published from Rampur 1898 A.D./ Karachi 1358 A.H./

Lahore 1376 A.H.

4. Friedmann, op. cit, p. 5.

5. Zawwar Husain, op. cit, p. 680./ Havat-i-Muiaddld . p.
253.

6. Published from Karachi, 1384/1964.

15

to time. 1 It also contains the Shajras, spiritual as well as
genealogical trees, of different silsilahs -Chistiya,
Naqshbandiya and Qadiriya. This brochure was compiled by the
author of the Zubdat-ul-Maaamat in 1051-53 A.H.^

The Zubdat-^l-Maaamat of Khwaja Muhammad Hashim Kishmi
is the earliest available authority for the life of the
saint. The author, had personal contact with the saint and
was spiritually connected with him. Naturally therefore the
subjective element is predominent in his narrative. He looks
at his spiritual mentor with profound respect and finds some
element of spiritual significance in every action of the
saint reported to him. As it was completed within three years
after the death of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, it occupies a place
of precedence in the Naqshbandi literature produced in India.
Its accounts contain many valuable details and at several
places he refers to the information he directly received from
the Shaikh in his life time.' 1 Next coming Hazarat-ul-Ouds of
Badruddin Ibrahim Sirhindi. Apart from biographical and other

1. Zawwar Husain, op. cit., p. 682.

2. Ibid, p. 792. Also, Abdul Hasan Ali Nadvi, Tarikh-i-
Dawat-wa-Azimat . Vol IV, Lucknow, 1980, p. 386.

3. The Zubdat-ul-Maqamat was first published in 1302 A.H. /
1885 A.D. by Matba-i-Mahmud, Lucknow and later in 1307
A.H. / 1890 A.D. by Nawal Kishore Press, Kanpur, at the
initiative of Pandit Ajodhiya Nath, Vakil High Court,
Allahabad.

details about the Shaikh, it attempts reputation of the views
of his credits.! Both Kishmi and Badruddin throw light on
Shaikh Ahmad's mystical as well as religious thought and his
contact with other sufis, ulama and nobles. These work also
contain accounts of Khwaja Baqi Billah and his spiritual
successors.

The Maktubat written by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi's sons,
Khwaja Muhammad Ma'sum^ and Khwaja Muhammad Sa'id^ are also
of great value. Both these brothers were brought up under
direct spiritual training of their illustrious father, and
later on came to occupy a pre-eminent place in contemporary
mystic life. Their contribution to the development of the
Naqshbandi silsilah in India is unquestionable. Aurangzeb is
reported to have been greatly inspired by the religious
thought of Khwaja Muhammad Ma'sum and Khwaja Muhammad Sa<2(2d.
A number of mystical concepts of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhind have
been either explained or elaborated in these letters.
Moreover, the impact of Sirhindi's thought on and his image

1. The Hazarat-ul-Quds is divided into two parts. The
second part, devoted to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, has been
published from Lahore in 1971 by the Punjab Waqf Board
(Pakistan).

2. Maktubat-i-Ma'sumiva , publish from Lahore, 1917.

o*

Maktubat-i-Sa&ediya , Lahore, 1385 A.H.

3.

1 ?

in the eyes of posterity can also be studied in these works.
Rauzat-ul-Qaivvumiva ^ of Kamaluddin Muhammad Ehsan has also
been an important source of our study of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi. It was written during the reign of Muhammad Shah.
It no doubt, provides some valuable pieces of information
about the life of the Shaikh, which is not available in the
Zubdat-ul-Maqamat and Hazarat-ul-Ouds . it has confused facts
with fiction. It is necessary to separate chaff from grain so
far as the historical importance of this work is concerned.

So far as the history of Akbar Jahangir's period is
concerned, we have mainly utilized the works of Abul Fazl,
( Ain-i-Akbari ^ and Akbarnama ^), Badayuni ( Muntakhab-ut-
Tawarikh ), 4 Jahangir ( Tuzuk )5 and Shah Nawaz Khan
( Maathir-ul-Umara ).6 The material contained in their
historical works has provided the basis for historical
assessment of the role of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.

1. An incomplete manuscript copy of this work is owned by
the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh. But it's Urdu trans¬
lation was published from Lahore in 1335 A.H.

2. Published from Lucknow, 1892.

3.

4.

5.

Calcutta, 1886.
Calcutta, 1869.
Aligarh, 1864.
Calcutta, 1888.

\

6 .

CHAPTER-1
THE MILIEU

IS

CHAPTER-I
THE MILIEU

Before studying the life, thought and the religious as
well as mystic activities of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, it is
necessary to make a historical analysis of the period in
which he was born, brought up, received education and
started his career as alim and sufi. As contemporary
thought, trends and movements play an important part in the
evolution of human personality and deeply influence the
ideas, actions and other aspects - both inward and outward,
of the life of every individual. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also
must have been either infuenced or come into conflict with
many social, political and religious trends of the time. He
also must have observed and studied the condition and
environment of the time from different points of view. His
writings reveal that he was very much disgusted with the
ideology and functioning of various religious persons and
groups, both outside and inside the Muslims society. If
properly analysed, we see that the fifteenth and the
sixteenth centuries of the Christian era in India saw
mushroom growth of new sects, new philosophies, and new
religious approaches.* All these trends and tendencies of
the period must have determined the direction of his thought.
1. K.A. Nizami, Akbar and Religion . Delhi 1989, p.28.

19

The Mahdawi movement was the most important movement of
the time. It exercised great influence upon the contemporary
Muslim society and attracted large number of staunch
supporters to its £old. Its founder Syed Muhammad of Jaunpur
left a deep impact upon common people, ulama . sufis and the
ruling class. All these groups were attached to his
teachings and practices for about two centuries. Though
there had been some other persons in India who claimed
themselves to be promised Mahdi ^ but Syed Muhammad achieved
great success as a claimant to this position. He declared
himself a Mahdi at the end of the 15th century.

Born on 14th Jamada I 847/9th September 1443 in
Jaunpur, during the reign of Sultan Mahmud Sharqi
(840/1436-7 - 862/1457-8), Syed Muhammad started his early
education under Shaikh Daniyal at the age of four years,
four months and four days. Initially by memorizing the
entire holy Quran he gained mastery over all traditional

r

sciences and at the age of twelve he received the title of

1. For example a man, whose name was Rukn and who had not
received proper education in any educational institution
or under any teacher, is reported to have claimed to be
'Mahdi-i-Akhir-uz-Zaman'. For details see, Sultan Feroz
Shah, Putuhat-i-Firuz Shahi , (ed. Shaikh Abdur Rashid),
Aligarh 1954, pp.7-8.

20

1 Asad-ul-ulama 1 . (the lion of scholars), from his teacher.^
It is reported that since his very boyhood Syed Muhammad
used to receive Divin calls informing him that he was the
promised Mahdi ♦ It is also reported that many Divine secrets
were revealed to him in those days.2 His piety and learning
soon became known everywhere. All the contemporary and later
sources praise his spiritual and intellectual greatness.
According to Abdul Qadir Badayuni Syed Muhammad's wilavat
(sainthood) and eminence were unquestionable.3 Large number
of his contemporary ulama and scholars, both in India and
abroad, are said to be highly impressed by his scholarship
and spiritual attainments.4 Even Sultan Husain Sharqi
(1458-79) was deeply impressed by him and got himself
enrolled as Syed Muhammad's disciple.^

1. Abdur Rahman, Sirat Imam Mahdi Mauud . Hyderabad
1369, pp.5-19.

2. Sirat Imam Mahdi Mauud, p.20.

3. Niiat-ur-Rashid . (ed.Saiyid Muinul Haq), Lahore, 1972,
p. 77

4. Ibid. Abul Kal^am Azad, Tazkira . Lahore, p.32. Also AbU.1'.
Fazl, Ain-i-A^bari . Lucknow 1892, Vol.III, p.174. Also
Badayuni, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Calcutta, 1869,
Vol.III, p.67. Also S.A.A.Rezvi, Muslim Revivalist
Movements in Northern India . Agra 1965, pp.78-79.

5. It is said that Syed Muhammad provided Sultan Husain

Shari with the military help to fight against Raja
Dalpat of Gaur and himself joined his army and

ultimately gained victory over Dalpat. For details see
Miyan Mansur Khan, Jannat-ul-Wilayat , Hyderabad 1376,
p. 14.

21

In 887/1482 Syed Muhammad left Jaunpur, under a divine
inspiration for Mandu. It was in his way that, near Denapur,
his wife, son and a follower declared him as the Mahdi .
Though the latter confirmed their inspiration but advised
them to make the declaration at the proper time.- 1 2 3 -
Afterwards he reached Mandu in 892/1486-7 via Kalpi and
Chanderi where he attracted a large number of people and
even Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji towards his fold.^ Badayuni
says that an eminent poet and close companion of the Sultan,
having been impressed by Syed Muhammad, renounced the world
and joined the latter’s discipline.3

Later on, he came to Bidar. where he left deep
impressions upon some eminent ulama who thought him to be
the promised Mahdi. After visiting some other places in the
Deccan for some time, Syed Muhammad left for Mecca with his
360 followers in 901/1495-96. There he openly declared, in
the premises of Ka'ba, that he was the Mahdi . It was his
first open declaration of his claim to this promised
dignity. Then Syed Muhammad returned to India and stayed at

1. Sirat Imam MahdiMauud . pp.36-37.

2. Si rat Imam Mahdi Mauud , pp.44-47.

3. Bandigi Burhanuddin, Shawahid-ul-Wilavat , Hyderabad

1960, p.65.

22

Ahmadabad for about eighteen months.^- He also travelled
over Jaisalmer, Nagaur and Nasrpur in Sindh and made a
sojourn at Thatta for few months. Then he marched towards
Khurasan where he was hailed by large crowd and even by the
kings and rulers of various places.^ Syed Muhammad died on
Monday, the 19th Ziqa'da 910/27th April 1505 at Farah in

Iran .3

It is said that-Syed Muhammad did not found any new
religion or sect. He is reported to have said that his main
object was to restore Islam to its pristine purity. That is
why, he, instead of following the four famous schools of
Islamic jurisprudence, laid stress on directly consulting
and following the Quran and the Hadith , (the Prophet's
Traditions), as basic sources of Islam. The Mahdawi
spiritual discipline was based upon the following
principles. ' Turk-i duniva 1 2 3 (renunciation of the world),
1 Uzlat az Khala 1 (seclusion from mankind), ' Tawakkul 1 (trust

1. Bandigi Miyan Yusuf, Matla-ul-Wilavat , Hyderabad 1955,
pp.36-41, Also, Shawahid-ul-Wilayat , pp.89-94. Also
Muslim Revivalist Movements . p.85.

2. Sirat Imam Mahdi Mauud, pp.120-22.

3. Ibid., p.139.

23

in God), ' Talab-i didar-i-haa 1 (quest for the vision of
God), 1 Ushr 1 (distribution of one tenth of income in
charity), Zikr (constant meditation and repetition of the
names of Allah, loudly and quietly), and Hiirat (migration
for religious purpose).^

The Mahdawis organised small daeras where people were
trained in the Mahdawi doctrine and their community life was
organized on proper lines. These daeras became a focal point
in the propagation of Syed Muhammad's doctrine. Gujarat,
Sind, Biyana "and Kalpi were the main centres of the
Mahdawis. Maulana iCoul Kalam Azad says: "Ninth century Hijri
prior to the reign of Akbar was a period of great tumult,
confusion, and unrest. The rise and fall of kingdoms was an
every day feature. There was no central government strong
enough to vouchsafe the promulgation and protection of the
ordinances of Shariat . The wordly minded ulama were in
greater number than the God-fearing ulama . Materialism,
fraud and deceit were rampant. To crown them all, the bid'at
(innovations) and the unlawful activities of the ignorant

\

1. For details see, S. Abul Hasan Ali Nadvi, Tarikh-i-bawat-
o-Azimat , Vol.IV, Lucknow, 1980, P.55.

sufis had added to the confusion and misled the people.
Seeing this, Syed Muhammad raised his voice for the revival
of Shariat and the establishment of the lawfulness".1 But
Professor K.A.Nizami, on the contrary, is of the opinion
that although the movement of Syed Muhammad had come into
existence for the revivalism of Sunnah and the eradication
of innovations but it could not continue in its original
form for a long period. According to him the concept of
Mahdawiyat clashed with the concept of Khatm-i Nabuwwat ,
(finality of the Prophet), which is one of the basic
principles of Islam. Ultimately, many of the ulama of the
time started to oppose and condemn it.2 it appears that the
Mahdawis were active even during the time of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi. Like other contemporary ulama, he too thought the
Mahdawi movement and doctrines injurious to Islam and the
Muslims. He vehemently criticises them ■ in his various
letters.3 He says; "Any type of laziness and negligence in

1. Tazkira . P.52

2. K.A. Nizami, Havat-i-Shaikh Abdul Hag Mahaddith Dehlawi ,
Delhi, 1964, pp.271-72.

3. Makhtubat-j-Imam-i-Rabbani . Vol.II, Letters No.15, 67,

68 .

the task of religious propagation leads to the encouragement
of innovators and even creates hindrance in the way of
Islam. It is only because of this negligence and laziness
that the Mahdawis are openly preaching their faith by
inviting true Muslims to their false faith; as soon as they
get opportunity they take one or two Muslim to their fold".l
In another letter Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi writes, "Some
foolish people think that the person who emerged from
amongst the Indian Muslim and claimed himself to be the
promised Mahdi was the real Mahdi. They also think that the
Mahdi has expired and say that his (the Mahdi's ) grave is in
Fara. All the reliable traditions ( ahadith ) totally deny and
reject these persons as whatever features of the Mahdi have
been described by the Holy Prophet of Islam, do not at all
fit in his case. It is very regrettable that, due to
ignorance, people are going astray instead of knowing every
thing correct and clear about the concept of promised
Mahdi 11 .2

1. Maktubat, Vol.I, Letter 15.

2. Maktubat . Vol.II, Letter No.67

23

The Raushaniya Movement^ also assumed great importance in
the pre-Sirhindi period in Mughal India. "For about a
century", says Dr. Tariq Ahmad, "The Raushaniya activity in

1. Its founder Bayazid Ansari, born in Jalandhar in 1525,
belonged to a Qazi family which claimed descent from Abu
Ayyub Ansari, the famous companion of the Prophet of
Islam. His father, after his birth, shifted to Kaniguram
in South Afghanistan, where Bayazid was brought up.
Since his very boyhood Bayazid's mind was more concerned
about metaphysical and ontological problems than
ordinary problems of religions or mundane affairs of
life. Later on he independently started trade and in
this connection he had to travel frequently between
Samarqand and India. It is said that on one of his
business journeys he went to Kalinjer where he came into
contract with Mulla Sulaiman, an Ismaili, and was so
impressed by him that he joined his discipline.
Gradually the Ismaili thoughts and practices fascinated
Bayazid and he became deeply introspective and seclusion
loving. He soon began to feel that he had some great
mission to fulfil and was himself a perfect spiritual
mentor. He, therefore, claimed having achieved qurbat
(nearness to God) and having heard the Divine voice, but
in the early stages he did not reveal his spiritual
experiences to anyone. He mostly remained busy in
repetition and meditation. One day he left as if he was
one with God and thereafter he claimed to have undergone
strange spiritual experiences. Later he journeyed
through various cities and towns of Afghanistan and
Central Asia. According to Tariq Ahmad, "Mystic
contemplation made Bayazid ego-centric and he began to
consider himself superior to others". Consequently,
people started to oppose him and wherever he went
congenial place for the propagations of his ideas and
the organisation of his movement. Ultimately he settled
down in Peshawar which proved receptive to Bayazid's
doctrines. He successful in winning over the Afghans who
live around Peshawar and belonged to the Khalil tribe.
For details see Tariq Ahmad, The Raushaniya Movement ,
Delhi 1982, pp.31-40.

27

tho frontier region engaged the attention of the Indian
Mughals".-*■

The teachings of Bayazid Ansari, the founder of the
Raushaniya Movement, represent a curious mixture of sufi,
Mahdawi and Ismaili traditions. He had clear awareness of
his needs and he picked up from the various religious
ideologies elements which could be of help to him. He took
such elements which could augment his religious prestige and
establish his superiority over the people. Ideologically
Bayazid drew sustenance for his movement from the concept of
' Wahdat-ul-Wuiud '. But the way in which he gave expression
to his Waiudi ideas could not but be criticised by the
orthodox section. Tariq Ahmad says f ''Infact much of the
criticism which Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi levelled against the
concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujud was due to ideas as expressed by
persons with immature spiritual experiences like Bayazid
Ansari".2

Bayazid preached that through constant Zikr (recitation
of the name of God) and meditation, union could be

1 • T hS. Raushaniy a Movement r p.4.
2. Ibid, p. 58.

23

established with the Creator. Contrary to the thought of the
Sufis that Union of God and man was possible only in rare
movements of ecstacy# Bayazid Ansari preached the permanence
of Union. According to him God is omnipresent and every
existing object and creation is His form.l

As for his spiritual discipline# Bayazid refers to six
stages which could lead man to salvation. In his Hal Nainah
he mentions these eight stages of spiritual development as
Shariat . Tariqat . Haqiqat # Marifat « Qurbat . Waslat and
Sakunat.2 Bayazid also laid stress on the necessity of
having a pir . He told his followers that nothing could be
achieved without a pir . According to him obeying the pir
meant obeying the Prophet and the God.-*

In 1545 Bayazid started enrolling disciples. He
informed his followers that he had been sent by God to
educate his people. He claimed that he had acquired
spiritual perfections directly. He appointed Khalifas and

1. Ibid# p.59.

2. Tariq Ahmad# op.cit.# p.60.

3. Ibid, p.62.

\

sent da 1 2 3 is (missionaries) to propagate his teachings and to
enrole disciples. He wrote and sent various treatises to his
contemporary rulers, saints and ulama , and invited them to
join his religious discipline.1 Bayazid had also compiled a
book entitled Khair-ul-Bavan , which he used to show and
teach to his disciple after fully examining their devotion
to himself and completely gripping their attention to his
thought and practices. It appears the brochure dealt with
Bayazid's secret spiritual and prophetic attainment. Thus,
he claimed to have received instructions through Divine
inspiration.2 it appears that he legalized assassinations
and murders of non-Raushaniyas. According to him whosoever
does not know himself and God, he is not a man; and being
harmful, he is to be recokned a wolf, a tiger, a serpent or
scorpion; and the Prophet has said "kill a harmful creature
before it causes harm". He would say that a person, whether
of good conduct or a performer of namaz . was to be
considered as an ox or sheep and the killing of such a
creature is lawful.3

1. The Raushaniya Movement . p.63.

2. Ibid., p.64. .

3. Tariq Ahmad, op.c^t., pp.65-66.

30

So far as the Mughal-Raushaniya relations were
concerned, the Mughals in the initial stages adopted a
policy of wait and watch.As soon as the movement assumed
dimensions which directly or indirectly threatened Mughal
interests in the Region, this policy was abondoned by the
Mughals. The area of influence of the Raushaniyas being
between Kabul and the Indus-specially around the Khaibar
pass - the Mughals strained every nerve to establish their
control over this region. It is to be borne in mind that so
long as Bayazid confined himself to purely religious and
social activities, Akbar took little notice of him. But as
his movement developed political dimensions, he (Akbar) had
no option but to act.l

Though we do not find the Raushaniya Movement to be
referred to in Sirhindi's works, he must have come across
the basic religious ideology of Bayazid Ansari. He also must
have studied his thought in the light of Quran and Sunnah
and finally found it contrary to the teaching of Islam.

An other movement which influenced the sixteenth
century society of Iran and India, and even the thought of

1. The Raushaniva Movement . pp.41-42.

31

Emperor Akbar wQ.s the 'Nuqtawi movement’.^ It owed its
origin to Mahmud Pasikhani^ of Iran (ob. 800/1397). Many
Nuqtawis are reported to have migrated to India in fear of
persecution in Iran by the Shia rulers.3 some of them
joined Akbar's court as well. Badyuni sqys that some of the
court poets in Akbar's reign were Nuqtawis.4 Abul Fazl had
correspondence with Nuqtawis of Iran.5 The Nuqtawi attitude
towards Islam and its Shariat was far from respectful. They
ridiculed many practices like Hai and the fast of Ramazan
etc. It is said that Ibahati traditions were also prevalent
among the Nuqtawis . According to the aqther of Dibastan-i

1. For the details of the 'Nuqtawi movement' in Iran
see,Sadiq Kaya, Nuqtawivan va Pasikhaniyan , Tehran 1320
A.H. Also; Nazir Ahmad, Tarikh i wa Adabi Maaile ,
Aligarh 1961, pp.5-8. Also, Ali Raza Zakawati, "Nigha-i-
Tazah-i-ba Munabe'Nuqtawiya", in Tah g ig a t-i-Islami ,
Tehran, Vol.II, No.2, (March 1988), pp.31-39. Also,
Muhammad Aslam, Din-iTlahi aur uska Pasmanzar . Delhi,
1969, pp.163-77.

2. See, Ibid.

3. Askander Munshi, Tarikh-i-Aalam Ara-i-Abbasi . Vol.II,
Tehran, 1314, A.H. p.325.

4. Badayuni, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II, p.205.

5. Aslam, op.cit., p.164.

Mazahib # the Nuqtawis recited some prayers with their face

towards the sun. They believed in the transmigration of the
souls, rejected the idea of Resursection and questioned the
concept of the Day of judgement. Their attitude toward the
Quran was also heritcal as they believed it to be the word
of the Prophet of Islam.* The Nuqtawis found a congenial
atmosphere in India where Akbar's court had become a place
for all free thinkers, Sharif Amuli, who represented the
Nuqtawis at Akbar's court, attracted many of the courtiersto
religious fold. He also had deep impact upon Faizi and Abul
Fazl.^ Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi surely night have got
information of this movement role in forming his strict
ideas about religious innovation which he considered to . be
severely harmful.

The mystic thought of Shaikh Muhiyuddin Ibn-i Arabi was
the pivotal point of Muslim religious thought in medieval
India. His works, specially the '' Fusus-ul Hikam * and the
1 Futuhat-i Makkiva 1 exerted great influence on Muslim mind

1. Dabistan-i-Mazahib , (Muhsin Fani), Lucknow, 1881,
pp.300-301. (Tehran edition 1362 A.H., Part I, p.277).

2. Ddirr-i-Ilahi aur Uska Pasmanzar , p.164.

and were accepted in the mystic circle as the guide books
for one who set out on a journey of the uncharted ocean of
mystic experience.^ It is reported that the ideas of the
Great Shaikh (Ibn-i Arabi) reached and were introduced in
India through Shaikh Fakhruddin Iraqi, a disciple of Shaikh
Bahauddin Zakariya of Multan. Iraqi had attended the
lectures of Maulana Sadruddin Qunwi, who was a brilliant
advocate of Ibn-i Arabi's thought. In the beginning many
commentaries were written on Ibn-i Arabi's thought in
Arabic^ so that the thought did not reach the spiritually
immature and creat an atmosphere of religious anarchy. In
the early centuries the mystic teachers took care not to
associate the common people in the abstruse mystic thought

1. For a detailed study of Ibn-i-Arabi's thought in India
see, K.A. Nizami, TarikhiMgtaalat # Delhi 1966, pp.24-31.
Also, Salatin-i-Delhi ke Mazhabi Ruihanat . Delhi 1981,
pp.412-14.

2. For instance Syed Ali Hamadani wrote a commentary on
Fusus-ul-Hukam in Arabic. Abul Muhasin Sharafuddin of
Delhi's (d 1392/798). % Ain-ul-Fusus Sharh-ul-Fusus 1 .
Shaikh Pir Ali Muhaimis (d.835/1431) Sharh-ul-Khusus fi
Shar-ul-Fusus li ibn-ul-Arabi ' Sheikh Imamuddin Arifis

' Sharh-ul-Fusus ' Shaikh Ali Saghar Qannaujis (d.1140/

) N Jawame-ul-Kalam fi Sharh Fusus-ul-Hika m', Shaikh
Nuruddin Ahmadabadi's ^Tar ioat-u t-umam fi Shaxh Fusus^
ul-H ikam *. and Mulla Abdul Ali Firangi Mahalic, 'Sliar.iiz
ul-Fusus-un-Nahi min Fusus ul-Hikam . etc. For details
see, Tarikhi Maqalat 1 . pp.24-31.

34

of Ibn-i Arabi as it was generally believed that Wuiudi
ideas, if not properly understood and assimilated, could
give birth to heretical movements. But in the fifteenth and
the sixteenth centuries this cautious attitude was abandoned
and panthestic ideas of Ibn-i Arabi became a current coin.
Musud Bakk, who was executed at the orders of Firuz Shah
Tughluq, gave expression to pantheistic ideas in his diwan
* Nur-ul-Ain 1 2 and a mystic treatise known as Mirat-ul Arifin .
According to Shaikh Abdul Ilaq Mahaddith of. Delhi no one
before Masud Bakk discussed mystic secrets as openly as he
did.l It appears that during the time of Shaikh Abdul
Quddus Gangohi the diwan of Masud Bakk was widely read. 2

The impact of Ibn-i Arabi's thought is clearly
discernible in Indo-Muslim religious thought during the
sixteenth century. Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi started open
discussions about pantheistic philosophy. Commentaries on
Ibn-i Arabi's works came to be written in Persian. Shaikh
Amanullah Panipati started giving instructions to people in

1. Shaikh Abdul H$q Muhaddith, Akhbar-ul-Akhvar , p.169.

2. Tarikhi Maqalat, PP. 24-31.

35

the Fusus-ul-Hikam and Futuhat-i-Makkiva . 1 2 3 The impact of
his techings and sermons was so deep and effective that when
Shaikh Abdul Haq's father Shaikh Saifuddin reached his
Khanaah . he started crying, "Every thing is God. 2 According
to Gulzar-i-Abrar the Afghans were also very interested in
the ideas of Shaii5h-i-Akbar, Ibn-i Arabi. Daulat Khan Lodi's
son went to Syed Ahmad Afghan in order to seak elucidation
of some ideas of Ibn-i-Arabi.3

The impact of Pantheistic ideas on Muslim religious
thought had some delicate implications. If not properly
controlled, it encouraged the development of unconventional
religious idea, weakened the sentiments of adherences to
Sariat and also encouraged fissiparious tendencies. It is
significant that many of the movements of the period, which
is one way or the other deviated from the orthodox path,
drew inspiration from Ibn-i-Arabi's works and ( his
pantheistic ideas. It appears that some writing of Ibn-i-

1. Gulzar-i-Abrar # (Urdu translation), Agra, 132 A.H., p.266

2. Akhbar-ul-Akhyar # pp.293-95.

3. Gulzar-i-Abrar . (Urdu) pp.551-552.

36

Arabi were brought to the notice of Akbar also and he was
also inspired by them.

When Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi organized his revivalist
movement, he trenchantly criticised the ideas of Ibn-i-
Arabi. If his thought as expressed in the three volumes of
his letters, is analysed, it would appear that he considered
the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wuiud as the source of all
waywardness in religious life. He believed that the currency
of pantheistic ideas among the Muslims was bound to shaken
their faith in shariat law. His criticism of Wahdat-ul-Wuiud
had a tremendous impact on the contemporary Muslim mind.

The second half of the sixteenth century also saw
the emergence of the Christians and the Christianity in the
Indian sub-continent. Apart from the conversion of thousands
the people, both Hindus and Muslims, to this new religion,
the ruling class of the period was also inclined towards its
preachers. Emperor Akbar was convinced that Christian
principles must possess exceptional value and influence over
the hearts of men.* In 1577, he first came into contesuct

1. V.A. Smith, Akbar. The Great Mogul, (third edition
reprint), Delhi, 1966, p.97.

37

with 'Pietro Taveres', a Portuguese officer , who visited
Akbar's Court with his wife. It is said that his sound sense
and upright conduct won him the favour and esteem of the
Emperor.1 The latter sent for Father Julian Pereiria, the
Vicar-general of Bengal, to Fatehpur Sikri in 1578. This
man, Pereiria, openly exposed 'the errors of Islam 1 . Akbar
was so much impressed by the Christian teachings that he
requested the priest (Pereiria) to teach him Portuguese adn
the Christian doctrine.2 But it seems that both these
Christian priests could not satisfy the Emperor. In 1578,
Akbar also maintained relations with the Portuguese of
Daman and received Antonio Cabial as their ambassador. The
latter spent somtime at the Mughal court. He gave the
Emperor a considerable amount of information concerning
Christian manner and customs. But still Akbar seems to • be
unsatisfied as Cabral was not in position to expound with
authority the deeper matters of his faith’. Accordingly, he
decided to make arrangements for obtaining instructions from
fully qualified experts. In December 1578, Akbar sent
Abdullah Khan, as his envoy, to the Portuguese authorities

1. Nowroze Cooverji Mehta, The Religious Policy of Akba r,
Bombay, 1946, p.74.

2. Ibid.

38

at Goa and despatched to them a latter requesting him to
send to him two learned men alongwith books of law/ and
above all the Gospel. 1 He earnestly desired to understand
their perfection. The Emperor, in his letter, assured them
of full honour and protection. The Portuguese too, without
any action of their own part, found the door suddenly thrown
open to them by the king himself. Hearing his keen interest
in Christianity, the Jesuits thought it better and good
fortune to send their representatives.2 V.A. Smith says, "A
king so great and a kingdom so extensive to the glory of the
Church and the benefit of Portugal was not to be
neglected".3 Hence, their first mission consisting of
Father Rudolph Aquamiva^, as

1 .

Abul Fazl, Ain-

•i-Akbari, Vol.I, Lucknow,

1892, p.423.

2.

Mehta, op.cit..

p.74.

3.

Smith, op.cit..

p.121.

4.

An Italian by

birth, he was the bader

of the first

Christian mission to Akbar's court. He arrived at Goa
from Europe at the time when Akbar's ambassador reached
there from Fatehpur Sikri. Though he was barely 30 at
that time, showing his willingness to visit the Mughal
Court he was sent there. He returned to Goa in 1583 and
thence went to the adjoining territory of Salsette where
he was beset by a Hindu mole and murdered. Monserrate
praises his peity and secluded habits. His thoughts were
always assiduously fixed on God. He was so engrossed in

contd...

39

head of the mission, Antony Monserate 1 2 , as second in command,
and Francis Henriquez, who was a Persian convert from Islam
and a native of Ormuz, as interpretor and assistant, was
despatched by the Portuguese viceroy to the Mughal Court.
They reached Fatehpur Sikri on 18/28th February 1580 after a
journey of over three months. Akbar received them with marks
of friendship and accorded a warm welcome to this first
Christian mission by entertaining in various ways.2 They
received right royal treatment at the hands of the Emperor
and his officers. The fathers were given the fullest

f.n. no.l contd. from prev.

prayer that very often he slept in his attire that he
put on during working hours. He delighted in putting on
old worn-out clothes and shoes. His whole-hearted
devotion to prayer made him absent minded about his own
belongings and would often grope for his hat,
spectacles, books etc. His sincere love for virgin marry
bust out in extempore little songs of his own invention.
£h£ EeAxaious Pa iUsy af MMr p.74.

1. Born in 1536 in Catalonia, he has been described by one
of his biographers as a man extreme humility and in
close touch with God. lie was appointed tutor to Prince
Murad and accompanied Akbar on his expedition against
his brother Mirza Hakeem, but he died in the way at
Jalalabad.

*

2. Denison Ross and Eileen Power, Akbar and the Jesuits ,
(Translated with introduction and notes by C.H. Payne),
Delhi, 1979, p.18.

\

40

facilities and in cases of difficulties they could consult
Abul Fazl who was appointed to look after their comforts.
They were offered large sums of money which they decline to
accept and thus made an impression on Akbar. They were put
up in the palace^and shared food on the royal table. The
Emperor himself personally looked after them.l Father
Monserrate gives us a detailed account of how Akbar behaved
with them. According to him, the Emperor never allowed them
to remain uncovered in his presence, both at the solemn
meetings of the grandees and in private interviews. When he
would take them inside for closer conversation, he would
tell them to sit near him. He would shake hands with them
most famliarly and would call them apart from the ordinary
retainers and indulge with them in private talks.2

Akbar received from these fathers the gift of a
magnificantly bound copy of the Royal Polyglot Bible of
Plantyn, in several volumes and in four languages, printed
in 1569-72 for Philip II of Spain. lie is said to have
treated these scriptures with great reverence, taking each

1. Mehta, op.cit. . pp.74-75.

2. The Religious Policy of Akbar , p.75.

41

into his hand one after another, removing his turban to
place each volume on his head, and kissing them devoutly. 1 2 3 4 -
Thereafter Akbar asked him to meet the discussions in the
'Ibadat Khana’, where they entered many disputes with ulama
and mashaikh .2 These Christian priest#, particularly Father
Monserrate, gave an ugly exhibition of bad taste. The
questions like the 'finality of the Quranic Revelation 1 ,
'the Prophecy of the Prophet of Islam ’, 'the Resurrection’,
'the Nature of Divinity’, and the conception of the 'Unity
of God’, were subjected to their severe criticism. They
openly attacked Islam in rude and offensive language and
even used foul words against its Prophet.^ They are also
reported to have advised Akbar to bau the Quran and its
study in his dominion.4 Although they could not uttar
everything that was in their minds, yet they said and did
very much. Badayuni says, "Ringing of the conch ( Nagoos ) of
the Christians, and showing of the figure ofthe Trinity and

1. Akbar and the Jesuits . pp.19-20.

2. Ak bar and the Jesuits . p.21.

3. Ibid, p.16. Also Badayuni, Vol.II, p.260.

4. Shah Nawaz Khan, Muathir-ul-Ulama . Vol.II, Calcutta,1888
p.217.

42

Cribs which is their sign of mirth, ancj other childish play
things Qahw-o-la'b ) ' were in daily practice. And the
Infidelity (Kufr) became common and historic".1 Akbar also
commanded his artists to copy the pictures of Christ and the
Virgin Mary which the Fathers had with them, and directed to
make a box of gold to keep them.^

These Christian priests were allowed to WlJ Chapel
near the Royal palace. He himself visited them privately
with every mark of respect. They taught him that he should
set apart a time for hearing the interpretations of the
Divine Laws, and that he should adopt it as his own, and
that he should renounce that which was preached in all his
kingdom. ^ He also gave his second son Murad, then only ten
years old, to Father Monserrate, to be taught the Portuguese
language and the Christian morals. 4 T}ie missionaries were
given full liberty to preach their religion publicly at Agra

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II, p.304.

2. Akbar and the Jesuits , p.22.

3. Akbar and the Jesuits, pp.22-23.

4. Ibid, p.24.

Badauni, Vol.II, p.260.

43

and Fatehpur Sikri. According to Sir Edward Maolagan, tlie
fullest liberty of making conversions to Christianity was
also given to them.l They did all in their power to
persuade Emperor Akbar to declare himself a Christian.2

Their attitude was so uncompromising and fanatical that
in the words of Vincent Smith, "Nothing but the strong
protection of the Emperor could have preserved their
lives". ^ Dr. R.p. Tripathi is of the opinion that these
missionaries did not produce a good impression on and their
freedom gave offence to Akbar also.^ During their stay at
the Mughal court the Portuguese missionaries had to face
tough trials, for. we are informed that they were often
petted with filth and abused as kafirs . 5 still they did not
back out in their efforts for the final goal. Smith rightly
indicates tht the Emperor's great favours and undue regards

1. Sir Edward Mclagan, The Je suits anc| the Grea t Mogu l.
London, 1932, p.32.

2. Akbar and the Jesuits, p.40.

3. Akbar» the Great Mugul , p.125.

4. R.P. Tripathi, The Rise and Fal l of the Mugh al Empire ,
Allahabad (Reprint), 1985, p.250.

5. The Religious Policy of Akbar*p.75.

44

to these Christians as well as their rude behaviour,
insulting and hostile attitude to Islam and Muslims, and
offensive remarks for the' Holy Prophet of Islam greatly
antagnoised Akbar's rivals and opponents, and even preluded
the rebellions in Bengal, Bihar and Kabul. To quote Smith,
"As a matter of fact, their presence at Court, the marked
favour shown to them by the sovereign, and the licence of
their language, helped to influence the discontent which
found expression in two formidable rebellions, undoubtedly
dangerous to both the throne and life of Akbar".1 Though
these rebellions had pulled down the Ibadat Khan, yet Akbar,
after their suppression, resumed its proceedings for a short
time and renewed the discussions about the relative values
of the Quran and the Bible . He wished the controversy to be
continued to discover as to which religion, either Islam or
Christianity, was the truer and sounder. These discussion as
observes R.P. Tripathi, "Led to all kinds of rumours and
misapprehensions not among the outsiders,but also among
those who participated in them". 2 Gradually the attendance

1. Akbar, the Great Mogul , p.126.

2. The Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire # p.250.

45

dwindled in the House of worship until the Fathers alone
came. Ultimately they also found that it was not worth their
while to attend. The debates came to an end in 1582.

In 1585, Akbar came into contact with some English
travellers, viz. John Newbery, Rolph Fitch, the London based
merchants, James Story, a painter, and William Leeds, a
jweller. The latter is said to have been taken into Akbar's
royal service. These English travellers, who stayed at
Fatehpur Sikri for about two months, brought with them a
latter of recommendation from Queen Elizabeth I, addressed
to Emperor Akbar. No account of whatever of the reception of
the party by the Mughal ruler has been recorded. It appears
that they did not enter any religious controversy and
disputes with ulama and scholars.1

In 1590 a second Portuguese mission arrived at the

royal court. It was received with utmost respect and paid

*

much attention. Its members were Edward Leiton and
Christophe Vega. Nothing much is known of the activities of
this mission. Five years later, in 1595, a third Portuguese
mission came to Akbar's court at Lahore. He paid them extra-

1. V.A. Smith, op.cit. , pp.164-65

46

ordinary personal honour permitting the Jesuits not only to

be seated in his presence, but to occupy part of the cushion

on which he himself and heir to the throne would sit. They

were also exempted from performing the ceremony of the

prostration before the Emperor.^ The members of the

mission, viz.Father Jerome Xavier, who was the grand-nephew

of Saint Francis, Father Emmanuel Pinheiro and Brother

Benedict de Goes, frequently visited and presented gifts to

%

Akbar. He willingly accepted a book written by Father Xavier
on the life and doctrines of Christ, gave perfect freedom of
worship to the Jesuits.2 Akbar imbraced images of their
Lord and the Blessed Virgin, and kept them for a long time
in his arms. He also attended litany service in the Chepel
and exhibited special devotion to them.3 The Fathers tried
to lead the Emperor to many sinful acts, which Islam forbad
to be committed, and suggested him for declaring the Quran
false and untrustworthy. 1 2 3 4 Nevertheless, they were allowed

1. Akbar and the Jesuits . pp.49-51.

2. The Religious Policy of Akbar .p.75.

3. Akbar and the Jesuits , pp.62-71.

4. Ibid., p.27.

4 ?

to build Churches at Agra, Lahore and other distant places
of the Mughal Empire.^ Akbar is reported to have bore all
expenses of the constructions of these Churches and even
visited the Church at Agra.2 in 1603 Akbar allowed these
Portuguese Christian missionaries to make willing
conversions.^ Father Pinheiro is stated to have suceeded in
converting a Syed . a Shaikh who had been to Mecca and after
his conversion went from Lahore to Agra to assist the
Fathers in other conversions, a mother and a daughter of the

1. R.S. Sharma, Religious Policy of the Mughal Rulers ,

Bombay (Reprint), 1962, p.37.

Mehta, op.cit♦ # pp.80-81.

Akbar allowed the Father in 1599 to build a Church at
Agra adjacent to the building where they lived in the
city. Another Church was allowed to be built in 1604,
which is still known as Akbar Badshah ka Girja.

A little .after the second Portuguese mission
arrived in Lahore, Akbar, on 5th August 1595, gave his
assent for the construction of a Church near the place
which was completed on September 7, 1597 and opened in
the presence of a grand gathering including the Governor
of Lahore himself.

Moreover, we also find references of the
construction of Christian Churches and Chapels in
Bengal, Gujrat and Sindh. We are toDd of a grand Church
to which was built in Thatta in Sindh.

2. Akbar and the Jesuits # p.25.

. It is to be mentioned here that the oral permission had
been given kty Akbar to Christian missionaries much
earlier, during the stay of the first Portuguese mission
at royal court. See Supra p.55.

3

tribe of the Chaghatai. Several conversions were made from
persons of lower classes.1

Thus we see that Emperor Akbar was so much attracted
towards Christianity and the Christian missionaries that he
devoted from the teachings Islam itself.

So far as any clash or conflict between Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi and the Christian missionaries is concerned, we
don't find any reference in this direction. But it is
presumed that the Shaikh, who had been for several years to
the Mughal capital and associated with many important nobles
and officials, surely might have got the complete
information of the activities of the Christian priests at
Agra and other places. It can easily be supposed that the
close contacts of the Chrisitan missionaries with Akbar and
other dignitaries of the Mughal empires, and the spread of
Christianity missionaries especially the conversion of
innocent Muslims must have been a very anxious business for
him. Nevertheless, he might not have taken the issue as
dangerous or threatening to Islam and Muslims in India as
Hinduism, its mystic ideology and political dominance.

1. Mehta, op.cit. . p.79

Among the most wicked and astray groups in the Muslim
society in those days were the worldly minded ulama . In the
words of Professor Nizami/ "They had opened the door of
darkness through the charm of iitlhad , the interpretation of
the Divine laws, and Bidat-i Hasana , the pious
innovations."* In one of his letters Shaikh Ahmad Sirhind
says that most of the ulama of that time had given rise to
bidat innovations, and forgotten the way of sunnah .^

The love of worldly things and desire of wealth and
dignities had so badly demoralised and despirited these
ulama that they could easily be agreed to issue any type of
verdict, fatwa, to please Emperor Akbar whose court was the
main centre of their substantial activities. When Qazi Khan
Badakhshani sought ' and proved the validity of the
prostration before Emperor Akbar, Mulla Alam Kabuli
regretted that he had missed the chance, the same verdict
should have been issued by him.3 Really the activities and
wrong interpretation of these worldly minded ulama had

1. Kayat-i-Shaikh Abdu l Haqq Muhaddith
Dehlawi . Delhi, 1964, p.272.

2. Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani (Turkish edition), Istanbul
1977, Vol.II, Letter No.54.

3. Nizami, op.cit ♦ , p.273.

50

killed the true spirit of Islam. It had become a general
tendency of carelessness from the Shariat and the Sunnah .
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi writes "As you know better that in
previous regime all types of darkness and disturbences were
only because of the avarice of the ulama-i £u".^

Mainly two sections of Ulama existed at Akbar's court
in the beginning. One was led by Makhdum-ul Mulk (Abdullah
Sultanpuri) and the other was headed by Sadr-us Sudur Shaikh
Abdur Nabi. Though they exerted great influence upon and
highly regarded and trusted by Akbar, but in the later years
they put behind all Islamic norms only for their worldly
gains. Badayuni continues to say, "One night the ulama got
excited and a great commotion took place. His Majesty did
not like this <^nd he told me to bring to his notice
hereafter any of this group who uttered unreasonable words,
so that he might remove him from the meeting. I said slowly
to Asaf Khan that on that account most of them might be
turned out. His Majesty asked me what I said and he (Asaf
Khan) reported what I told him. His Majesty was so much
pleased that he passed on these words to his favourites.

1. Maktubat, Vol.I, Letter No.194.

51

Makhdum-ul Mulk Maulana Abdullah Sultanpuri was called into
the assembly for being rediculed. His Majesty put against
him in discussion Haji Ibrahim and Shaikh Abul Fazl, who had
recently come and was now the upholder of the new faith but
was rather a just pupil and the only follower, and other new
comers. They interrupted him (Makhdum-ul Mulk) in every
word. In the midst of all this,some of the favourites also,
according to instruction, began to enter into pros and cons
and related strange stories about Makhdum. Of these, one
night, Kham-i-Jahan said that Makhdum-ul Mulk had given a
Fatwa, religious injunction, that Haii pilgrimage in these
times is not compulsory, but is hurtful. When he was asked
the reason he argued that the road to Mecca is through Iraq
and Gujarat. On the land route there is trouble by the Qizil
Bash tribe and on the sea route a passport from the
Portuguese is to be obtained and in that passport pictures
of Mary and Jesus are imprinted and this looks . like idol
worship. Thus it is prohibited both ways. The other tale
(of Makhdum-ul-Mulk) was about the pretext of avoiding the
zakat of his property which, at the end of each year, he
gave away his treasure to his wife. Similarly his manners
and wickedness and deceit and worldliness and oppression
which he displayed towards the mashaikh and saints of the

52

country, particularly to the leaders and deserving people of
Punjab, were all related one by one. The related stories
which cast all varieties of shame and rebuke on him, and
ultimately it was decided that he should be sent knowingly
and compulsory to Mecca. When they asked him whether
pilgrimage was compulsory on him, he replied 'No'."!
Likewise, Shaikh Abdun Nabi, another important divine of
Akbar's court and Sadr-us*-Sudur of the empire, also was
known for his misbehaviour, bad manners and short temper. He
too is reported to have discovered pretence for avoiding the
payment of zakat . According to Badayuni both Makhdum-ul-Mulk
and Sadr-us Sudur, participating in the religious
discussions in the Ibadat Khana . behaved shamefully towards
each other.2 Instead of developing better understanding and
appreciation they led to bickerings and personal
recriminations. They quarrelled among themselves on
fundamental questions of Islamic theology and openly
exhibited unworthy intolerance to each other's views. They
did not confine themselves to oral differences, but also
used their pens against each of them. Abdullah Sultanpuri
wrote a treatise^ against Abdun Nabi by arguing that no

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, pp.201-4.

2. Ibid., p.255.

53

congragational n£.naz could be led by or offered behind him
as he (Abdun Nabi) was a patient of bloody piles and his
father had disinherited him.-*- Sadr-us-Sudur also is said to
have compiled a brochure by refuting Makhdum-ul-Mulk and
declaring him to be totally illiterate.2 In nutshell,
their uncompromising attitude on any controversial point of
the Shariat . their quarrel in the Ibadat Khana , which passed
from the tongues to blows and abuses, made Emperor Akbar
disgusted with Islam itself.^

Besides, there had been many other ulama also in
Akbar's Court who actively participated in the proceedings
of the House of worship. They too cursed their opponents and
imputed allegations to one another. Haji Ibrahim Sirhindi
issued a fatwa by legalising the use of the yellow and the
red dresses for men. He is also said to have discovered a
fabricated hadith which permitted to shave beard. According
to that hadith . "Once the Holy Prophet of Islam received one
of his companions' son who had shaved his beard. The

1. Badayuni, op.cit. . p.255.

2. Ibid.

3. Muhammad Yasin, A Social History of Islamic . Indi a. 1605-
1748 . Lucknow, 1958, p.141.

54

'Messenger of God', looking at the young man, told that the
inhabitants of the Paradise would also be clean shaved like
him, the son of his companion".1 Another Muslim divine
found out another anecdote that one should not have beard
like that of the Oazis of Iraq.2 similarly a third alim came
foraward denouncing the legality of beard.3 Likewise,
various other topics of Islamic theology and jurisprudence
were wrongly explained to Emperor Akbar by these scholars.4
One pronounced a thing lawful, another would pronounce the
very same thing unlawful.^ syed Muhammad Mir Adi, also a
divine of Akbar's court, called his apponent, even in the
Imperial presence, an accussed wrethc, abused him and lifted
his stick to strike him.® Thus the behaviour of these
worldly minded ulama shocked Emperor Akbar's by weakening
his faith in Islam.

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . vol.II,p.278.

2. Ibid., Vol.II, p.304.

3. Ibid., p.303.

4. Ibid., pp.209, 259.

5. Ibid., p.211.

We can not see a complete picture of the religious
condition at Akbar's reign especially at hiB court, without
studying the role of shaikh Mubarak and his sons Faizi and
Abul Fazl. Of ail the important groups, active in the Ibadat
Khana , potentially the most dangerous was that of Shaikh
Mubarak of Nagaur and both of his clever sons. They were
cast in the same mould. They joined hands in humiliating the
orthodox ulama and other religious minded Muslims in the
Mughal Court and flayed an important role in the tremendous
change in Akbar's beliefs. Shaikh Mubarak was learned man,
and his learning was matched only his antagonism to the
orthodox ulam in power, especially Abdullah Sultanpuri the
Makhdum-ul- Mulk, and Shaikh Abdun Nabi, the Sadr-us-Sudur.
He had been a Mahdawi in the previous years but, after their
suppression, gave up all pretensions of sympathy with them
and called himself a Naqshbandi to please some powerful
Central Asian nobles. When Shia nobles seemed to be gaining
ground, he advocated the Shia point of view.* On his
appearance at the Mughal Court and especially at the Ibadat
Khana, he suggested a thesis that seemed to fit Akbar's

1. For details see Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.III, pp.73-
74.

purpose admirably. He tried to twist well known principles
of Islamic jurisprudence and constitutional practice to
serve Akbar's design. In 1573, when Akbar returned to Sikri
from his gujrat compaign. Shaikh Mubarak advised him to give
a lead to his people in matters religious.^ Quraishi rightly
says that Shaikh^Mubarak activities,which were hostile to
Islam and Muslims, were based on personal vendetta. He
prostituted his learning for damaging the cause of Islam.^
It appears he did every thing in this connection willfully
and purposely. Quraishi says, "It would be an insult to his
intelligence to think even for a moment that he would not
know what he was doing".3 shaikh Mubarak's elder son Abul
Faiz Faizi, also learned scholar (but not so profound as his
younger brother Abul Fazl) good poet and capable of writing
an exegesis of the Quran without using a single letter with
dot or dots, would praise Emperor Akbar for venerating ■the
sun.4

1. Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire , p.248.

2. I.H. Quraishi, Akbar . Delhi (Reprint), 1985, p.138.

3. Ibid.

4. Maathir-ul-Umara . Vol.II, pp.588, 589.

57

His younger son, Abdul Fazl, was also very learned
scholar•According to Shah Nawaz Khan, he was equally capable
of presenting an exegesis of the verses of the Quran to
Akbar when he thought that such a gift would gratify the
monarch,^ and impressing upon his mind that Quran had been
written by the Prophet himself and was not inspired.2 Having
been introduced to Mughal Court in 1574, Abul Fazl exerted
so great influence upon Akbar that he considered him the
ablest and the most confident among all his nobles and
courtiers. Even in his life time some called him an infidel,
others said that he was an arch heretic. Dr. Ishtiaq Husain
Quraishi is rightly of the opinion that, 'A man so learned
and so unscrupulous, was extremely danagerous when he had an
untutored mind like Akbar's to work upon.'-* Abul Fazl
criticised Islam and refuted the ulama's argumentations
during the debates in the house of worship. He was not
satisfied withmerely condemning the ulama in the court but
even went to the extent of using bad language against
eminent Muslim divines of the past centuries. He attacked
Imam Ghazali' by declaring his works and saying him as non-

1 .

Ibid.,

p.609.

2.

Ibid.,

p.617.

3.

Akbar.

p.139.

sense.1 He also refuted the principles of four Muslim
schools of jurisprudence, i.e. the Hanafite, the Shafite,
the Malikite and the Hanbalite, and unhesitatingly denounced
the founders of these school respectively.2 it was Abul Fazl
who made an impression upon Akbar that Islam was nothing but
imitation ( taoleed ),3 and that it had completed its whole
age, one thousand years after the Holy Prophet.4 He also
brought home the idea of a new faith to the Emperor and
excited him to be an incarnation of God. Abdul Fazl taught
Akbar that he was the supereme spiritual power and all
Divine characteristics are reflected in him.5 Accordingly by
propounding the concept of millennium^, the favourable
circumstances were created to declare Akbar a God's

prophet.7

1.

Zubdat-ut-Muaamat, P.131

2.

Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Vol.il.

p. 200.

3.

See the Persian translation of

Mahabharata,

4.

Badavuni, op.cit., p.301.

5.

Ibid., p.279.

t

6.

Ibid., p.301.

7. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Ithbat-un-Nabuwwat . Hyderabad
(Pakistan), 1383, p.6.

the

Besides, Babur and Humayun's close contacts with
Iranese and their family association with the Shias had
unconsciously moulded the thought process of Akbar. His
childhood had passed in the midst of the folklore and
traditions of Persia. Moreover, on his arrival in India
alongwith Humayun and Bairam Khan, Akbar continued to be
under the Shia suzerainty of the Persian monarch.* After
becoming Emperor in 1556, he remained for some years under
the virtual tutelage of Bairam Khan whose attachment to the
Shis Sultan of Persia was very pronounced. During his
(Bairam's) regency, the whole religious administration of
the Mughal Empire ran on Shia lines and even the Sadr-us-
Sudur was a Shia alim . Shaikh Gadai. 2

During the process of discussion in the Ibadat Khana,
when Akbar could not be satisfied on the different problems
of Isiamic theology and jurisprudence, he invited Shia ulama
and scholars to participate in the religious discussions and
to know ,what they (Shias) had to say in different matters.
Initially three Shia scholars namely Hakeem Abul Fath,

1. M.L. Roychoudhary, The Djn.-irJlaM (The Religion of
Akbar), third edition, Delhi 1985, p.79.

2. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II, p.337.

Hakeem Humayun and Hakeem Nuruddin were warmly received.
These ulama not only attracted the attention of Akbar by
their theological learning but Akbar developed high
admirations for them as men of culture. According to
Badayuni, Abul Fath soon obtained so great influence upon
the Emperor that he was admitted as his intimate companion.
Ultimately he got the dignitiy of a commander of a thousand
and had power of a vakil. Badayuni says that Abul Fath was
one of those principal influences that led Akbar away from
Islam the path of the Sunnah . Hakeem Humayun was so great a
friend of the Emperor that he often said that he did ralish
his meals if Hakeem Humayun was absent.1

Mullah Muhammad Yezdi, another great Shia alim of
Iran, also deserved to be mentioned among the Shia ulama of
Akbar's court. He frequently visited the Emperor and
poisoned his ears against the Sunni Muslims. He is also
reported to have openly criticised Sunni jurists and even
accursed the companions of the Holy Prophet of Islam,
especially the first three pious Caliphs and the Prophet's
wife Aisha.2 Listening to his speaches and private talks,

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarik h, Vol.II, p.214.

2. Ibid., p.259.

61

Akbar started to deny the Revelation (WahjJ Prophethood
( Nabuwwat ), and the Prophetic miracles ( Moiezat ) etc.
Impressed by Mulla Yezdi's feelings Akbar used to say that
the Shariat was just an imitation f taaleed ). He would
consider the reasoning (acjliat) as the basis of the
Religion.1

Besides/ there was another Shia alima # Qazi Nurullah
Shustari/ in those days, who also played an important part
in strengthening the Shia community in India by writing a
very famous book/ Maialis-ul-Muminin ^. in defence of Shia
doctrines. He was appointed as Qazi-u l -Qu zat of Lahore on
the recommendation of Hakeem Abul Fath. It is remarkable
that Qazi Nurullah/ who was a staunch Shia, on his
appointment was allowed to decide the cases according aJl
four schools of the Sunni jurisprudence. ^ Thus we are
informed of many shia ulama in Akbar's court. They advocated
and supported Shia customs and practices, e.g. f muta (the

1. Ibid., p.211.

2. Published from Tehran in 1299 A.H.

3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh # Vol.III, pp.

custom of the temporary marriage) and taga i yya (the pious
fraud) etc., in the Ibadat Khana.l These ulama did not stop
here but even obtained royal permission to make conversions
to their sect.2 They must have tried to their best to turn
away Emperor Akbar from the Sunni path.

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was very much critical of the
Shia influences on the Mughal ruler and politics. He
considered Shia ideology to be extremely injurious to the
path of Kitab-wa-Sunnah . The Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani
severely attack Shia faith and it followers. He says, "The
waywardness of the company of a heretic (b id*ati ) is more

f *

strong than that of the company of a infidel ( Kafi r). Among
all the heretical sects the most worst are those who have
emunity with Companions of the Holy Prophet of Islam.
Almighty Allah calls them as ku ffar in His Book, the
Quran ".2 As will be discussed later, he also compiled a
complete brochure in the refutation of the Shia sect and
beliefs.

1. Ibid., Vol.II, p.209

2. Ibid., Vol.II, p.317

The forces of Hindus and Hinduism were also trying to
gain social, political, cultural and religious supremacy
over all other communities of the Mughalempire during the
sixteenth and the (early) seventeenth centuries. If, on one
hand, Hindu ruler<s raised their heads to strengthen their
dominions, on the other, many Hindu revivalist movements and
religious personalities are reported to have been launched
and openly preached their religious ideology. Let us briefly
analyse the whole situation.

Despite his religious devotion, orthodoxy and even
sympathetic attitude towards Islam and the Muslims, under
the influence of his mother, in the early years of his
reign, Akbar had also been, at the same time, in touch and
acquainted with Hindus and their beliefs, and practices.
Certain measures in this regard were adopted by him when he
was still under the influence of orthodoxy. In 1562, on his
way to Ajmer, in order to visit the Dargah of Shaikh
Muinuddin Chishti, when he came into contact with Raja
Bihari Mall, the Chief of Ambar/Jaipur in Rajputana, he
married the latter's daughter at Sambhar.^ The bride

1. Abul Fazl, Akbar Nama, pp.243-44.

64

subsequently became the mother of Saleem (Jahangir).
Moreover, Akbar introduced Raja Man Singh, a nephew and the
adopted son of Raja Bhagwan Das who was the heir of Raja
Bihari Mall, into the imperial service and rose him
ultimately to the high office.Furthermore, in 1563, while
engaged in tiger hunting and encamped at Mathura, it was
brought to his notice that his government had been levied
taxes from Hindu pilgrims visiting their sacred places. "He
felt", in the words of Abul Fazl, "That it was contrary to
the will of God to tax the people assembled to worship Him,
even though their form of worship might be arroneous". He,
therefore, remitted Hindus from these taxes, throughout his
empire, which amounted to millions of rupees.1 The other
important step of Akbar in pursuance of his policy of
sympathy and kindness for Hindus, which had already resulted
in his marriage with the princess of Ambar, the conferment
of the office on Raja Man Singh, and the remission of the
pilgrim taxes on Hindus, was the abolition of the Jizva , the
poll tax required to be paid by the non-Muslims in an
Islamic state, early in 1564.2

1. Akbar Mama . Vol.II, p.190.

2. Ibid., II, p.190.

65

In 1570 Akbar again married Hindu princesses of Bikaner
and Jaisalmer*. Though these Rajput girls were formally
converted to Islam, yet their influence in the affairs of
the Empire was remarkable and gradually they did not
hesitate in siding openly with the forces arranged against
Islam or at least orthodoxy. As their conversion was not the
result of any change in their conditions but a political and
social necessity, their loyalties to their community
remained unchanged. According to Badayuni, they worshiped
pigs which were kept in the palace and in its vicinity as
they believed that God had incarnated Himself in them.2 (we
seek refuge of God). Dr.Ishtiaq Husain Quraishi is rightly
of the view that "Akbar's Hindu consorts must have persuaded
their husband to keep pigs to enable them to pay their

respect to these creatures, because they ore believed to be

an incarnation of Shiva".3 Besides, Bir Bal and Raja Todar

Mai also achieved great eminence, the former as a pleasant
companion of the Emperor and the latter os an able

administrator and general.4

1. Ibid., pp.518-19.

2. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, p.305.

3. Akbar . p.141.

4. Maathir-ul-Umara . Vol.II, pp.118-129.

Akbar's sympathy for Hindus and their religious outlook
had been growing steadily. His social relations with the
Hindu nobles not withstanding, "His Hindu wives", says Dr.
R.P. Tripathi, "By their religious favour, personal devotion
and sweet simplicity, must have exercised unconcious
influence on the mind of Akbar".- 1 2 All such influences
prompted him to come near to Hinduism. Like his curiosity to
know the doctrines of Christian religion, Akbar also showed
interest in the acquisition of the first-hand knowledge of
the Hindu thought and principles. He now invited pandits and
iogis to expound the doctrine of Hindu religion. Bir Bal and
Man Singh discussed their religious ideas with and tried to
mould him to their own faith.2

Impressed by these people, Akbar removed all
restrictions upon the public religious worship by non-
Muslims. He also removed restriction on the construction of
building of public worship. Accordingly, many Hindu temples
were erected at different places of Hindu pilgrimage. Hindu
officers and nobles availed the opportunity and built

1. Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empir e, p.253.

2. Badayuni, op.cit. . Vol.II, p.257.

67

temples dedicated their to gods and goddesses. Man Singh
built temples at Banaras and Bindraban, and spent several
lakhs of rupees on their decorations. Another temple was
allowed to be‘ repaired and its main idole, destroyed by the
imperial army during the Kangra expedition in 1572-73, was
restored to its place of honour. 1 He is also reported to
have sanctioned heavy amounts for the establishment of a
dharmshala at Churin in Kangra. Its founder, a recluse, was
allowed to claim as much land as his cow could cover in a
day.^ Similarly, the Hindus of Thaneser in Punjab were
permitted to rebuild the temple in the tank of Kurukshetra
by demolishing a mosque at the site.3 Another temple at
Achal Makani near Batala was also rebuilt.^

Akbar also paid extra-ordinary attention to the
development of Hindu culture and civilisation. He organised
a translation department and many religious books of Hindus
were ordered to be translated into Persian. 5 Moreover, he

1. Jahangir, Tuzuk-i-Jahanairi , Aligarh 1864, p.347.

2. Religious Policy of the Mughal Rulers , p.68.

3. Badayuni, Vol.II, p.322.

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Maktubat, Vol.II, Letter no.93.

4. Sujan Rai, p.425.

5. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II, pp.212-13, 320.

68

participated in Hindu festivals and zealously celebrated
Rakhi . Hindus came to the royal court and tied strings of
threads on the Emperor's wrists on this occasion.1 He also
celeberated Dewali 1 2 3 4 and joined the celeberation of
Shivaratri .3 Afterwards, Akbar showed great respect for
Hindu sentiments and many practical stop wee acted upon in
this context. The situation came to such a lamenting point
that he issued orders by putting a stop to the conversion to
Islam from other religions.4 He permitted Hindus to convert
to their faith such Hindus as had accepted Islam earlier. 5
He also adopted a number of administrative measures of
Hindus and Hinduism.

So far as the propagation of the Hindu teachings in
Akbar's court is concerned, Badayuni informs us, "Brahmins
who in all matters private and public are prior to all in
receiving honour of serving and auspiciousness of company
and who in their books of morals and traditional and

1. Sharma, op.cit. , p.41.

2. Abul Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari . Calcutta 18 , Vol.I, p.216.

3. Badayuni, Vol.II, p.325.

4. Akbar Nama . Vol.II, p.154.

5 .

fundamental sciences and in their religious devotions and
ecstacies and human perfections are more reliable than the
rest of the thinkers and devotees and are superior, put
forward their arguments and proofs, rational . as well as
traditional to show the truth of their own religion and the
multification of others. They consider the theories as
fundamental principles which cannot be bleasted by any
sceptic doubts and they succeeded in setting aside all
notions of resurrection with all its details and traditional
ideas which had prophetic light as their source. They also
conveyed to his ears objections and criticisms on the
brilliant easy religion and the bright Catholic ideas which
are mentioned in the works of the adoption of their own
creed through the expression ofword and deed. At times they
made Debi one of the annotators of Mahabharata sit on a
charpoy which was pulled upto the chamber called the
Khwabgah, (the bed-room). Debi used to explain the mysteries
of the Indian stories, methods of worship of idols, fire,
sun and stars and gods like Brahma, Mahadewa, Bishn, Krishn
and Ram etc.- 1 -

1 .

For details see Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II,
58.

pp.256-

70

Akbar also seems to have been pleased and maintained
relations with Zoroastrian priests and in 1578 he invited
Dastur Maherji to his royal court who tought him Parsee
doctrines, peculiar terms, ordinances, rites and ceremonies
of his creed, laying stress above all on the reverence of
sun and fire. Abul FazI informs us of Akbar's reverence for
fire and light, "The bright-hearted world illuminator
(Akbar) considers the light of fire-worship, the subtle-
minded wise one knows well. When the wise ones consider the
worship of external forms the right mode, how can respect to
this sublime element which is the source of the existence of
human beings, be improper. And why should a man entertain
such ruinous thought”.^ Akbar is aJso reported to have
prayed before the fire after the style of the Zoroastrians .2
He also reported the Parsee Calender, which also be speaks
of his learnings towards that religoin.3

These increasing activities and thought of the Hindu
rulers and preachers greatly annonyed Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
So far as the internal and private affairs of Hindus and

1. See Kehta-, op.cit. , p.42.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid., p.44.

71

Hinduism

were

concerned,

Shaikh Ahmad did not

at

all

interfare

in

it, because.

according the teachings

of

the

Ourah, he

was

of the opinion that both the people,

Hindus

and Muslim, should live peacefully by strictly following and
adhering to their religious paths.But when they came into
conflict with Islam, its social and religio-political norms
and principles, the Shaikh severely attacked them and even
informed and warmed the common Muslims, nobles and grandees,
and the sufis and ularoa of danger created by them.

We find Shaikh Ahmad sirhindi, at various places in his
maktubat-i-Imam-i Rabbani . to be raising voice against the
increasing revivalist Hindu forces and cautioning his co¬
religionists (Muslims) to be alert and careful of their aims
and intentions. In one of his letter, to Lala Beg, Shaikh
Ahmad, describing the activities of the Hindus, says, "For
about a century Islam is so oppressed that the infidels are
not satisfied with the mere promulgation of the practices of
the Kufr but they even desire Islamic norms and practices to
be totally aboished, and Islam and Muslim completely rooted
out. The situation is serious that if any Muslim follows the
path of Islam, he is assassinated".2 The Shaikh, in another

1. See Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani . Vol.I, Letter 47.

2. Maktubat . Vol.I, Letter 81.

72

letter, also illustrates the helplessness of the Muslims and
the superiority of the Hindus during the reign of Akbar. He
says, "In previous reign, the infidels ( kafirs ) were so
powerful that they circulate the commands of infidelity in
the land of Islam. And the Muslim were so helpless that they
could not disseminate the teaching of Islam. And if they
did so, they were assassinated".^ Shaikh Ahmad further
says, "The work of these wicked persons ( kafirs ) is nothing
to laugh at Islam and Muslims. If they get opportunity, they
make us abandon Islam or kill all of us or make us kafirs
again".2

In another letter to ' Khan-i-Azam Mirza Aziz Koka,
during the reign of Emperor Jahangir, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
informsof the activities of the kafir s in these words, "The
helpi oneness of Islam has come to this point that the
infidels openly taunt and criticise Islam and Muslims. And
they farelessly propagate the commandments of the kufr and
praise their goods and gooddesscs. The Muslims are unable to
preach the laws of the Shariat : and if they do so, they are
blamed and condemned".3

1. Ibid, Letter 47.

2. Ibid, Letter 163.

3. Ibid, Letter 65.

73

Bhakti movement was also one of the most significant
development in the religious life of medieval India. It was
essentially a revolt against religious dsicrimination,
socia] inequality, caste distinction and ccc]esiaoticai
forma]ism. The main exponents of this movement were Kabir,
Chaitanya, Dadu, Pipo and Dhanna. They all belonged to the
low caste Hindu society. They were bitter critics of all
caste concepts.1

4

r

As many of the saints of the Bhakti school, had, at one
stage or the other in their lives, came into contact with
the Muslim saints, many Islamic ideas permeated their
thought and behaviour.2 They had been very influenced by
the sufi concept of 'love of God', and 'humility'. Many
other Islamic ideas and practices were adopted by these
Bhakti saints. The generally used the medium of poverty and
the language of common people of communicate their ideas. A
number of Arabic and Persian words are found in their
religious works. The Gurugranth, and the Dadupanthi and
Niranjanpanthi literatures, for example, contain sayings of
both Hindu and Muslim religious thinkers.

1. K.A.Nizami, Akbar and Religion . p.29.

2. Ibid., pp.29-30.

The Bhakti saints had a deep consciousness of their
mission. Many of their ideas and thought had far-reaching
socio-re]igious significance. They preached that all
religious had some goal before them.* The spiritual
mentor (guru) should be treated as the supreme authority. 2
They were of the view that the relationship between God and
Manwis the same as between waves and the sea. They believed
that the transmigration of souls was the real cycle of life;
and outward formalities of religions had no value. One
should strive for the interrorization of re3igious rights.^

The frequent movement of the Bhakti saints and far-
reaching influenc^,. of their thought also effected, to some
extent, the Muslim society of the fifteenth and the
sixteenth centuries. Many Muslims immature mystic mind felt
attracted toward the Bhakti movement and its saints. Dadu's
disciple Rajjabdas (1567-1689) is an interesting example of
the impact of Bhakti cult on Muslim mind. He was Muslim with

1. Gurmukh Singh, Nanak Prakas, pp.215-16.

Also, Muluk Daski Bani , p.27.

2. Tara Chand, Influences of Islam on Indian Culture,
Allahabad 1946, p.158.

3. Akbar and Religion , pp.35-36.

75

Rajab Ali as bis original name.-* Shaikh Ahmad Sirbindi,
therefore, could not reconcile to such ideas and activities.
When a Hindu, Hirday Ram, sought his clarification on the
sameness between God, Lord Rama and Lord Krishna, as Hindus
believe. The Shaikh vehemently criticised this concept and
told him, "It is foolishness to know Ram and Rahman as one.
Creature cannot be equal to Creator".2

1. For some time he had served in the army of Raja Bhagwan
Das and Raja Man Singh, and later joined the circle of
Dadu Dayals followers (see Ak bar and Religion , p.32).

2. Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani , Vol.I, Letter No.167.

CHAPTER-II

BIRTH, EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION

76

CHAPTER II

BIRTH, EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION

Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi belonged to a distinguished
family of saintly scholars of medieval India. Geneologically
he was the descendant of Umar bin al-khattab,* the second
Pious Caliph of Islam and attained twenty eighth position
from him. 2 One of his ancestors. Shaikh Shahabuddin AJ.i,
generally known as Far.rukh Shah Kabuli, was among the great
nobles and ministers fo Sultans of Kabul . 2 He is reported to

1. For his biography and other details see, Abu Jafer Ibn-
i-Jarir Tabari, Tarikh-i-Tabari . Vols. I & II, (Its Urdu
translations have appeared from Deoband in 1983/84).
Also see, Shibli Numani, Al-Farua . Shibli Academy,
Azamgarh.

N.B. - Some historians have called Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
as Saiyyid Ahmad Sirhindi which is not correct. For
instance see, Qiyamuddin Ahmad, Wahabi Movement in
India , Calcutta, 1966, pp.12-13.

2. Khwaja Muhammad Hashim Kashmi, Zubd at-u l-Maqamat , Kanpur
1890, pp.88-89.

Following is the geneological chain of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi;

Shaikh Ahmad S/o Abdul Ahad Faruqi s/o Zainul Abidin S/o
Abdul Haiy S/o Shaikh Muhammad S/o Ilabibullah S/o Imam
Rafiuddin S/o Nasiruddin S/o Sulaiman S/o Yusuf S/o
Ishaq s/o Abdullah S/o Shoeb S/o Ahmad S/o Yusuf S/o
Farrukh Shah Kabuli S/o Nasiruddin S/o Mahmud S/o
Sulaiman S/o Masud S/o Abdullah al-Waiz al-Asghar S/o
Abdullah al-Waiz al-Akbar, S/o Abul Fateh S/o Ishaq S/o
Ibrahim S/o Nasir S/o Abdullah S/o Umar bin al-Khattab.

3. The later Naqshbandi tazkirahs call him a ruler of
Kabul. (See, Khawja Kamaluddin Muhammad Ehsan, Rauzat-
ul-Qaivvumivah (urdu translation),Lahore 1335, Part I,
p.20. But the author of Zubdat-ul-Muqamat seems correct
as no ruler of this name is mentioned in the history of
Kabul. According to Amir Khurd, Farrukh Shah Kabuli
belonged to the family of the rulers of Kabul. (See,
S ivar-ul-Auliva , Delhi 1885, p.58).

77

have visited India with
officer. ^ Farrukh Shah
propagation of Islam.
Fariduddin <7anj-i-Shakar

the army of Kabul as an i
was known for his zeal
The famous Chishti saint
2 was also his becondant . ^

mportant
for the
Shaikli

An other great ancestor of Ahmad Sirhindi was Iman
Rafiuddin^/ a remoilc descendant of F.n i nkh Shah Kabuli and
a Khalifa Of Saiyyid Jalaludding Surkh Bukhari generally

1. Zubda t-ul-Ma gamat , pp.CC-G9.

2. He was an eminent saint of the Chishti r.ilsilah in India

and the spiritual success of Shaikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar
Kaki Aushi of Delhi. Born in a village near Multan, Baba
Farid Gang-i-Shakar previously lived in Hansi but later
he shifted to Ajodhan, now known as Pakpatan in Punjab.
He holds a very high position among the first cycle of
the Chishti saints in Indian sub-continent. Throughout
his life he struggled for developing and popularizing
the .Chishti mystic trends and spent his time in prayer
and meditation. He left a deep impact upon the Indian
society and a large number of common people, Umara,
Ulama and Sufis flocked to him and joined his mission.
He died in 1265 in Ajodher. For his detailed biography
see; Siyar-ul-Auliova , pp.58-91, Also; Shaikh Abdul Ilaq
Muhaddith Behlavi, Akhbar-ul-Akhyar . Delhi, 1914, pp.55-
59, Also; Ghauthi Shattari, Gulzar-i-Abrar . (Rotograph,
No.174, Research Library, Department of History, A.M.U.
Aligarh), f.13. Also; Jamali, Sivar-ul -Ar ifj.n, Delhi,
1893, pp.31-59, -K.A. Nizami, The. Ljfp an d Tjmes oj!
Farid uddin G^ -j ni-i-S ha kar Delhi 1955 (Reprint 1973) and
Tarikh-j-Masha^kh-i-Chj.sht, Vol.I, Delhi 1979, pp.212-

V’j Also, S.M. Tkram, Aab-i-Kausar , Delhi 1987,pp.217-
26 .

Zubd at-u l-M a gamat , p.89 (Almost all the Chishti sources
give the same information in this context).

His biographical account
Naqshbandi or other source,
he was,-a
pursuits,
pp.89-90.

is not available in any
According to Hashim Kishmi,
to religion and spiritual
pie and saintly life. See

addressed as Makhdum-i-Jahaniyan.^ When the letter was on
his way to Delhi, Imam Rafiudding accompanied him and met
the Sultan of Delhi, Firuz Shah Tughiaq. After some time the
Sultan sent Iman Rafiuddin back to Sirhind and asked him to
lay the foundation of a fortress and established a town
there.^

1. Born on 15th Shaban 707/9th February 1308, he was an

eminent Chishtji as well as Suharwardi saint of medieval
India and originally belonged to Bukhara in Central Asia
but later on shifted to Uchch in Sindh after spending
some time in Delhi. As a Chisti he had spiritual allegi¬
ance to Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh of Delhi, and in Suha-
rwardiyah silsilah, he was a khalifa of Shaikh
Ruknuddin, the son and successor of Shaikh Bahauddin
Zakaria of Multan. Makhdum-i-Jahaniyan is known as the
chief saint of the Uchch branch of the Suharwardi order.
He is reported to have deep impact on Sultan Firuz Shah
Tughiaq. For details see, Sivar-ul-Arifin . pp.155-64,
Also; Afif, Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi . pp.514-16, Also;
Akhbar-ul-Akhvar . pp.139-40, Also; K.A. Nizami, Salatin-
i-Dehli Jca Mazhabi Ruihanat , Delhi 1981, p.359; and "The
Suharwardi Silsilah and its influence on Medieval Indian
Politics", Medieval India Quarterly . Vol.III, No.l & 2,

July-Oct. 1957, p.131.

2. According to Zubdat-ul-Maaamat when Makhdum-i-Jahaniyan
and Imam Rafiuddin were enroute to Delhi, they passed
through the village called Sirhind and made a sojourn
there. Its people accorded a warm welcome to these
saints and requested them to made a recommendation
before Sultan Firuz Shah of Delhi for establishing a
town there. On meeting the Sultan, who himself had come
to receive and take them to his royal palace, they
conveyed the message of the people of Sirhind to him. He
accepted it and ordered to establish the proposed town.
First he sent Khwaja Fatehullah, the elder brother of
Imam Rafiuddin, to lay the foundation of a fortress and
to supervise the construction work of the town. After
some time healso asked Imam Rafiuddin to go to Sirhind.
The Imam completed the town by obtaining the spiritual
blessings of Shaikh Sharafuddin Bu Ali Shah Qalandar.
For details see, Zubdat-ul-Muaamat . p.90.

For Imam Rafiuddin's role and contribution to the
establishment of Sirhind town also see; Fauja Singh, ed.
Sirhind Through the Ages , Patiala 1972, p.14.

73

Ahmad Sirhindi's father Shaikh Ahad Faruqi 1 was the
fifth descendant of Imam Rafiuddin. 2 He was a renowned sufi
and scholar; and impressed his countemporaries by both his
spiritual and scholarly approach to religion. He had
established his own seminary at Sirhind which in time became
a recognized centre of Islamic theology in northern India. A
number of students from different parts of India,
Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia flocked around him to
seek knowledge, and slake their spiritual thirst. Shaikh
Abdul Ahad taught these students with devotion and love,
enlightening and preparing them for the spiritual path. 3 He
is reported to have had thorough command over all mystic and

1. It is important to note that Shaikh AbdulAhad Faruqi had
not joined the Naqshbandi silsilah. He has wrongly been
mentioned as "Naqshbandi" in some modern works. (See,
S.A.A. Rizvi, Muslim Revivalist Movements in Northern
India . p.202).

According to Zubdat-ul-Maqamat (see, p.116), the saint
was very much desirous to be benefited from the
Naqshbandi silsilah and its saints. But, as there was no
great saint of this order in India at that time, Shaikh
Abdul Ahad could not join the Naqshabandi silsilah. It
is therefore, incorrect to consider or mention him as a
Naqshbandi sufi.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat , p.89.

3. Ibid., p.112.

*0

trational works, especially the Fusus-ul-Hikam ^- of Shaikh
Muhiuddin Ibn-i-Arabi^ and Awarif-ul-Maarif 3 of Shaikh

1. One of the most difficult works of Ibn-i-Arabi, written

in 1230 in Arabic language, deals with the teachings of
eminent prophets. The book is divided into twenty seven
chapters, each chapter being named after a prophet.
Every chapter contains an appropriate aspect of Sufisim.
It has frequently been commented upon in Arabic by
Shaikh Muwaiyyiduddin bin Muhammad al-Jindi, Shaikh
Sadruddin al-Qunwi Daud bin Mahmud al-Qaisari,
MaulanaAbdur Rehman Jami, Shaikh Abdul Ghani al-Nablisi
and Shaikh Abdul Razzaq Kashani. (See. its urdu

translation by Maulana Abdul Qadeer Siddiqi, Hyderabad,
1942, p.9). Moreover, many Arabic commentaries were
produced in India also. Abul Muhasin Sharafuddin Dehlawi
(ob. 1392) Ain-ul-Fusus Sharh-ul-Fusus : and Shaikh Pir
Ali Muhaimi's (b. 1431) Sharh-ul-Khusus fi Sharh-ul-
Fusus b N Ibn-i-Arabi . and Fusus-ul-Na 1 am fi Sharh Fusus-
ul-Hikam : Shaikh Ali Asghar Qannauji's (ob.1140) Jawami-
ul-Jakan fi Sharh Fusus-ul-Hikam : and Shaikh Imaududdin
Arif's Sharh-ul-Fusus : and Shaikh Nuruddin Ahmadabadis
(ob.1155) Tariaat-ul-Umam fi Sharh Fusus-ul-Hikam : and
Bahrul Ulum Mulla Abdul Ali Firangi Mahli's, Sharh-ul-
Fusus-un-Nahi min Fusus-ul-Hikam etc. For details see
K.A. nizami, Tarikhi Maaalat . Delhi, 1966, pp.24-31.

2. Born on 17th Ramazan 560/28th July 1165 at Marisia in

Spain, Shaikh Muhiyuddin Muhammad bin Ali bin

Muhammadal-Ar^bi, better known as 'Shaikh-i-Akbar',
belonged to the tribe "Bani Tai", and was a descent of
'ilatim Tai’. He visited a large part of the then

Islamic World and stayed for a long time at Mecca and

Madina, and finally settled in Demascus where he died
in 638/1240-41. His tomb still exists there. For his
biopgraphy and other details see, Encyclopaedia of
Islam , Volume III, London & Leiden, 1971 / pp.707-11;

Also see, A.E. Afifi, The Mystical Philosophy of
Muhiyuddin Ibn-i-Arabi , Cambridge 1939.

3. It has been used as manual for the study of Islamic
mysticism by the sufis of all silsilah, and is
considered one of the best works produced by Muslim
saints. First printed at Cairo (Egypt) in 1888 on the
margin of Imam Ghazali's Ihva-ul-Ulum-ud-Din . English
translation by Wilberforce Clarke has appeared from
Delhi in 1984.

Shahabuddin suharwardi.^ Abdul Ahad had a thorough command
over the concept of Wahadat-ul-Waiud and taught it to his
students with great zeal and pleasure, giving scholarly
explanations .of all subtitles. 2 He was a prolific writer
also, and valuably works like Kanz-ul-Ilagaig ^ and Asrar-i-

1. Born in 539/1145, he was the nephew. Khalifa and the
spiritual successor of Shaikah Abun Najib Suharwardi. He
studied under Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani and other
eminent ulama and mashaikh of the time. Caliph al-Nasir
is said to have highly regarded and sent him as his
ambassador to thecourts of Saifuddin Ayyubi al-Malik al-
Adil I of Egypt; Alauddin Muhammad of Khwarizm Shah; and
the Suljuq ruler of Quniya Alauddin Kay Qubaz I. The
Shaikh visited extensively and went to Iran, Khurasan,
Transoxiana, Syria and Turkey. He made several
pilgrimages to Mecca and Madina. He produced many
valuable works, the most popular was the Awarif-ul-
Maarif . He died in Baghdad in 1234-35. For his details
see; Abdur Rehman Jami, Nafahat-ul-Uns . Tehran 1918,
p.472; Jalaluddin Husnai, Misbahul Haidava , Tehran 19.18,
pp.28-32.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maoamat . p.113.

Makhtubat-i-Imam-Rabbani , Vol.I, Letter No.31, vol.II,
Letter No.44. Makhtubat-i-Khwaia Masurm . Vol.II, Letter
No.29.

3. According to Khawaja llashim Kialnni, the treatise deals
with tasuwwuf, and sheds valuable light on various
spiritual themes. See Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.117.

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi has himself referred to the
treatise in one of his brochures Risalah-i-Tahliliva .
(Published from Karachi 1965,See, p.28).

Moreover, Ghauthi Shattari has also praised the
scholarship and spiritual excellence of Shaikh Abdul
Ahad Faruqi Sirhindi. See, Gulzar-i-Abrar , (Urdu
translation), Agra, p.500.

Tashahhud 1 reveal his profound understanding of the
literature on Islamic scholasticism, as also his calibre for
research.

Sheikh Abdul Ahad had been initiated into various sufi
order.2 Thus he was a Khalifa of Shaikh Ruknuddin^, the son

1. It was considered one of the standard works dealing with
the ascension, (the nocturnal journey, or the Me'raj),
of the Holy Prophet of Islam. It provides a scientific
discussion on this aspect in Arabic language.The author
of Zubdat-ul-Magamat has given its opening and
concluding paragraphs. See p.118-20.

2. It may be noted that it was the tradition in medieval
period to be initiated into various sufi silsilah at a
time Makhdum-^-Jahnniyan was also the member of both
Chishti and SulTarwardi silsilahs. Similarly Shaikh Abdul
Quddus Gangoli belonged to two sufi orders, i.e. the
Chishti, and the Qadiri.

3. Born on 5th March 1942, he was the spiritual successor
of his father Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangoli . He had also
spiritual allegiance to Saiyyid Ibrahim in the Qadiria
silsilah. 1-Ie resided permanently at Gangon where he
died in 1575-6. For his accounts see, Zubdat-ul-Maaamat .
pp.101-2; Also, Akhbar-ul-Akhvar . p.222.

N.B. - The Zubdat-ul-Maaamat states that Shaikh Abdul
Ahad, in his teanage, approached Shaikh Abdul Quddus and
sought his spiritual guidance. But the latter advised
him first to complete his formal traditional studies in
Islamic theology and then to join his mystic discipline.
Abdul Ahad thereupon submitted that since Shaikh Abdul
Quddus had already reached a very old age, he was
anxious that he might not be fortunate enough to find
the saint alive on the completion of his education. The
Shaikh answered Abdul Ahad to become a discipline of his
son Ruknuddin in such circumstances. Abdul Ahad's fear
proved to be right and when, on the completion of his
theological studies, he reached Gangoli, he came to know
that Shaikh Abdul Quddus was no more and his son had
succeeded him. Thus Abdul Ahad became the disciple of
and received Khilafat from Shaikh Ruknuddin. It is
reported that Shaikh Abdul Quddus had directed Ruknuddin
to enerole Abdul Ahad Faruqi Sirhindi in his mystic
discipline, (See pp.92-96).

S3

and successor of Shaikh Abdul Quddus gangohi^, in the
Chishti silsilah.2 He also recieved the Khilafat in the
Qadiriya order by the distinguished Shaikh Kamal Qadiri of
Kaithal.3 He was also on friendly terms with Shaikh

1. He was the renowned saint of the Sabiriya branch of the

Chishti silsilah. Shaikh Abdul Quddus received the
Khilafat from and became the spiritual successor of
Shaikh Muhammad, the son and successor of Shaikh Arif.
The latter was the son and successor of Shaikh Abdul Haq
of Rudauli. Shaikh Abdul Quddus, previously, himself
resided at Rudauli but in 1491 A.p. he migrated to
Shahabad near Ambala in Punjab where he lived for about
thirty years of his life. Finally, in 1526, he settled
down in Gangoli where he died in a r,ipe old age in 1536-
37. He was on good terms with Sultan Sikandar Lodi,
Ibrahim Lodi and Emperor .Babur.- He had
spiritualallegiance to Darwesh Qasim Awadhi of the
Suharwardi Silsilah as well. Among the works of Shaikh
Abdul Quddus Anwar-ul-Uyun . Risalnh-i-Oudsiva . Rushd
Nama, Ghar ib-ul-Fawaid and Mazhar-ul-Aiaib are very
famous. He also wrote a commentary on Fusus-ul-Hikam of
Muhiyuddin Ibn-i-Arabi. Moreover, the collection of his
letters Maktubat-i-Quddusivah deserves special mention.
For his detailed accounts see, ghaikh Ruknuddin's
Lataif-i-Quddusi . Delhi 1311 A.H.$ Akhbarul Akhvar .

pp.221-24; Zubdat-ul-Muaamat , pp.97-101, Tarikh-i-
Mashaikh-i-Chisht . Vol.I, pp.272-4.

2. Zubdat-ul-Muaamat . pp.92-96. It also contains the
Khilafat Nama, Shaikh Ruknuddin had given to Shaikh
Abdul Ahad.

3. He was an emirftnt saitn of the Qadiri silsilah in India
and held a very high and most prestigious position after
the foundation of the silsilah Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani
of Baghdad. ShaikhKamal resided at J(aithal, a village
situated near Sirhind and played very important role in
dissemination of the Qadiri silsilah in India. He died
in 1573 and was burried in his own village. Shaikh Abdul
Ahad Faruqi was very much close to him and they both
frequently visited each other. See Zubdat-ul-Maaamat .
p.305-8.

Jalaluddin Thanesari.^

As a devont sufi, Shaikh Abdul Ahad pilgrimaged to
various cities and called on eminent saints of different
silsilahs.2 Thus he went to Rohtas where he came into
contact with many saints especially Muhammad bin Fakhr^ and
profitted by his association. There he studied Quranic
sciences and received spiritual training. He also visited
Bengal and met eminent sufis thereof including Shaikh
Burhan^, a saint who spent most of hi$ time in meditation
and prayer. On his way back, Abdul Ah$d stayed in Jaunpur^

1. Born in 1469-70, he as a distinguished Khalifa of Shaikh
Abdul Quddus Gangoli. Emperor Akbar is said to have paid
a visit to his Khanqah and obtained his blessings on his
way to Kabul xn 1581. Throughout the life he was devoted
to meditation, prayer, Zikr and Sama . lie is also
reported to have written a treatise on Sama and another
work entitled Irshad-ut-Taabin . He died in 1582 and was
succeeded by his son-in-law Nizamuddin Thanesari bin
Abdush Shakur.For his details see, Zubdat-ut-Maqamat #
p.103; Tarikh-i-Mashaikh-i-Chisth . Vol.I, p.280.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.110.

3. Originally belonged to Jaunpur, Muhammad bin Fakhr was
known among the famous ulama of the first half of the
sixteenth century. lie is reported to have produced many
theological and polemical works including a commentary
on Qazi Shahabuddin Daulatabadi 's Kaf i a-i-I bn -ul-I Iaiib.
For his accounts, see Saiyyid Abdul llaiy Ilasani, Nuzhat-
ul-Khawatir . Part IV, Hyderabad 1973, p.209.

4. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.lll.

5. His biography and other details are hitherto unknown.

6. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat # p.112.

85

to meet and benefit from his association with Saiyyid Ali
Qawam 1 , a khalifa of Shaikh Bahauddin Jaunpuri. 2

Once Abdul Ahad sojourned to siknndara, a town near
Etawah in present Uttar Pradesh with the intention of
preaching Islam. Here he came into contact with an old pious
lady who was tremendously impressed by his spiritual and
moral excellence. She requested Abdul Ahad to marry her
younger sister, who herself was a pious woman. After some
initial hesitation, Abdul agreed, and married the lady. He
remained at Sikandara for some more time and then left for
Sirhind alongwith his wife.3

1. He originally belonged to a distinguished Sayyid family

of Sawat in Punjab but in his youth he migrated to
Jaunpur and joined the mystic discipline of Shaikh
Bahauddin. Though he had passed his boyhood and the
young age with an aristocratic bearing, yet he gave 1 up
all the luxuries and adopted a life of seclusion and
meditation. It is stated that he did not like to be

served and for forty years he didn't ask any person to
do any of his personalworks. He died in 950/1542 and was
buried in Sarai Amiran, a town in the vicinity of
Jaunpur. (BuS now in Azamgarh district). See Dara
Shukoh, Safinat-ul-Auliya . (Urdu) Deoband, pp.226-7.

2. He was a famous Chishti saint of Jaunpur and owed

spiritual allegiance to Shaikh Muhammad Isa, a spiritual
descendant of Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh of Delhi. For
his details see, Akhbar-ul-Akhvar,p • 199 ! Also Rauzat-ul-
Oaivvumiva (Urdu) Part I, p.31; Also, Enamul Haq, Sufi
Movement in Bengal, Indo-Iranica . VqI.III, No.I, July
1948, p.19. *

3.

Zubdat-ul-Magamat , p.126.

86

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was born qn Friday, the 14th
Shawwal^ 971 A.H./ 26th May 1564 A.D. at Sirhind.^ His
father named him Abul Barakat Badrucjdin Ahmad^. As the
father was devoted to Shaikh Kamal Qadiri of Kaithal, he
took the infant to the Saint who was staying in Sirhind at
that time, and obtained his blessings and spriritual
favours.4

1. Rauzat-ul-Oaivvumivah . (Urdu) Part I, Lahore 1335, p.53-

(It may be mentioned that no contemporary chronicle has
given any specific date of Ahmad Sirhindi's birth. They
give only the month and the year concerned).

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat # p.327; Also, Badruddin Sirhindi,

Hazarat-ul-Ouds . Volume II, Lahore 1971, p.31.

N.B.: Hashim Kishmi gives the chrongramic term "KHASHE"
which reveals 971 A.H.

It is to be noted that all the primary and later
works state that many great saints of different
silsilahs had long before predicted Ahmad Sirhindi's
appearance and his revivalist efforts.

3. Rauzat-ul-Oaivvumivah (Urdu), Part I, p.54.

4. Zubdat-ul-Maqg-mat . p.127.

It may be noted that Ahmad Sirhindi's mother aJso held
Shaikh Kamal in high esteem. Once, in his infancy,
Shaikh Ahmad fell ill very seriously. The mother would
remain distressed and anxious. She therefore reported
Shaikh Kamal and sought his spiritual blessing for her
son's recovery. The saint asked that her son would gain
health and fully recovered. He also told her that Shaikh
Ahmad would survive upto considerable long time and
become a great divine and mystic of his age as
Almighty Allah had created him for an important
religious task. Shaikh Kamal also predicted that many
renowned sufis and ulama would becomfe Shaikh Ahmad's
followers. It appears that Shaikh Kamal loved Ahmad
Sirhindi like his own son. The latter was eight or ten
years' old when Shaikh Kamal Qadiri passed away and
throughout his life he deeply associated himself with
the spiritual excellence of the saint. He would always
remember Shaikh Kamal, with deep respect and sincerity,
and pronounced his name with profound love and devotion.

contd..

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi received his early education from
his illustrious Gather and the ulama of Sirhind 1 , and very
quickly gained proficiency in different subjects, committing
the Holy Quran to memory^, and acquiring knowledge of
Islamic sciences. After this he proceeded to Siyalkot, an
important seat of Islamic learnings in those days, and there
studied some advanced works of tafseer and Hadith like Azdi
and imthala . all under the special guidance of Maulana Kamal
Kashmiri.^ Later he came into contact with yet another

f.n. no.4 contd.

Sirhindi used to say that in the Qadiriya silsilah
Shaikh Kamal was the greatest saint after its founder
Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad. Shaikh Ahmad
fully bore to mind Shaikh Kamal's face and personal
appearance (looks). He also completely kept in mind the
house where he (Shaikh Kamal) used to stayed at Sirhind.

1. Zubdat-ul Maaamat . p.128, Hazarat-ul-Puds , p.31.

2. Though all the contemporary later sources give the same
information but one of Ahmad Sirhindi's own letters
reveals that he memorised the Holy Quran during his
imprisonment in the Gwalior fort. See Maktubat-i-Imam-i-
Rabbani . Vol.III, Letter No.43; Also, Muhammad Masud
Ahmad, Sirat-i-Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Sani . Karachi 1976,
p. 51.

3. Shaikh Kamaluddin bin Musa al-Hanafi al-Kashmiri,
commonly called Maulana Kamal Kashmiri was a famous alim
of Kashmir who migrated to Siyalkot in 971/1563 where he
established a seminary in which a number of students
studied Logic, Philosophy, Scholasticism and
Jurisprudence. Despite Ahmad Sirindi, Maulana Abdul
Hakeem Siyalkoti, himself a famous divine, also studied
under him. Maulana Kamal Kashmiri died in 1010/1601 and
was buried in Lahore. See, Euzhat-ul-Khawatir , Part V,
Hyderabad, 1976, p.326.

renowned scholar Yaqoob Sarafi Kashmiri-* f and acquired still
more knowledge of Hadith from him.^ Sirhindi also went to
Qazi Behlul Badakhshani^, under whose supervision he studied

1. Born in 908/1501-2 in Kashmir/ he was one of the
renowned scholar and ulama of his time and a well-known
poet as well. He was the spiritual successor of great
Kubrawi saint Shaikh Husain Khwarizmi, and he acquired
honour by performing the pilgrimage to Mecca and Madina.
He received from' Ibn-i-Hajar the authority to give
instructions in Hadith . As a great alim he travelled
much and visited most of the Shaikhs of Arab and Persia,
and profited much by his intercourse with them. lie
received authority to assume the prerogatives of a
religious teacher and spiritual guide, and as such he
had many disciples in India and Kashmir. He died on 18th
Zeeqad 1003/25th July 1595. He was the author of some
sublime and beautiful works, and wrote many treatises.
He was illustrious and much relied upon as an authority
in all branches of Islamic learning,' and is said to have
written a commentary on the Iloly Quran , which was one of
the most wonderful production of hip perfect genious.
See, Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh . Vol.Ill,'pp.142-9; Also Abdul

. Qaiyyum Rafiqi, Sufism - in K ashmi r, Uelhi 1976, pp416-24«

It may be mentioned that Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi had
also joined the mystic discipline of and received
Khilafat from Shaikh Yaqoob Sarafi in the Kubrawiya and
Suharwardiya silsilahs. See, Hazarat-ul-Ouds , p.32;

Masud Ahmad, op.cit. , p.58.

It .may also be mentioned that Yaqoob Sarafi had
deeply influenced‘and laid great impression upon Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhinds*.. It was due to his association with
Yaqoob Sarafi^ that Sirhindi always insisted on the
Prophet's sunnah and voiced against Shite sect and
ideology which he considered to bo anti-Islamic. It
might be possible that he wrote his Risala Radd--i-
Rawafiz under his teacher's deep influence. (For Shaikh
Yaqoob Sarafi's anti-Shia activities, see, Sufism in
Kashmir , pp.lll--^-) .

2. Zubdat-ul-Macramat . p.128.

3. No contemporary or later work gives any detail of Qazi
Behlul Badakhshani. Hashim Kishmi only says that he
studied under Shaikh Abdur Rehman bin Fahd, a great
scholar of Hadith in Hedjaz, and was himself known for
scholarship in Hadith . See Zubdat-ul-Maaamat , p.128.

Taf seer-i-Wahidi -*-.

Taf seer-i-Baizawi. 2,

Sahih-al-Bukhari ^,

Mishkat-i-Tabrizi 4 Shamail-i-Trmizi 5 , Jame J, Sagheer-i-
Sivuti ^. Oasida-i-Burda ^ and Mishkat-ul-Masabih **♦ And thus
Sirhindi acquired command of all religious sciences# and was

l&2.Both are the famous exegesis of the Holy Quran and still
are taught in the Muslim theological institutions.

3. The most important collection of the Prophet's
traditions, compiled by Imam Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin
Ismail al-Bukhari (ob.256/870) and has been an authentic
source of Ili^-ul-Hadith among the ulama of Islam for
several centuries. Its real name is 'al-Jami al-Sahih
al-Musnad al-Mukhtasar min Umur-i-Rasul Allah . The
author has selected seven thousand traditions after
working hard for about sixteen years. It is said that
before he selected a Iiadith . he would prostrate and seek
God's help as to the truth of the recorded tradition.

4. Also a collection of the Prophet's traditions.

5. Another famous collection of Hadit .h compiled by Imam
Tirmizi.

6. It is one of the most important text included in the
syllabus of Islamic theology.

7. A celebrated poem composed by al-Busiri. Its verses ore
supposed to have some supernatural power. No other
Arabic poem has attained such renown. Near about ninety
commentaries of it in Arabic, Persian, Turkish and
Berber are said to have been written so far.

8. It is also a famous collection of Iiadith , compiled by
Abu Muhammad al-Husain bin Masud bin Muhammad al-
Bhaghawi (ob. 510/1116-7), a renowned Shafite scholar of
Iiadith. It contains 4436 Iiadith and was first published
in 733/1336-7 by Waliuddin bin Abdullah al-Khatib al-
Tabrizi. Its first English translation by A.N. Mathews
appeared in 1810 from Calcutta. In I960 another English
translation by James Robson, of the Arabic Department in
Manchestor University was published from London and
Pakistan. The Urdu translation of Mlshkat-ul-Masabih has
also recently appeared from Delhi.

90

at the young age o£ seventeen an, erudite scholar and
divine.It is reported that Sirhindi also had contact with
the eminent scholar of Hedith Shaikh Abdur Rehman.^

Thus fully equipped, Ahmad Sirhindi himself started
imparting instruction at Sirhind, and overnight his name and
fame spread through the length and breath of ughal Empire
Students poured in, joining his seminary and benefiting from
his scholarly and divine guidance. He imparted with great
zeal and devotion, by explaining the subttle intricacies of
Isalamic theology.3

In 990/1582, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi went to Agra and
stayed there to for a considerable length of time.4 At Agra,

1. Hazarat-ul-Ouds , p.32

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat , p.128.

3. Ibid., p.129.

Hazarat-ul-Ouds . p.32.

4. The exact period of Sirhindi's stayat. Agra is not known.
According to Ghulam Mustafa Khan the saint reached there
in 990/1583, (See, Makhtubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani . Turkish
edition, Istanbul 1977, p.602). It seems correct as
Sirhindi completed his education in 998/1580 at the age
of seventeen, and spent few years in imparting education
at Sirhind. Then he went to Agra. Doth Faizi and Abul
Fazl had joined the Mughal Court, in 975/1567 and
981/1574 respectively. So far as Ahmad Sirhindi's
departure from Agra is concerned, nothing is known as to
when he left for. Sirhind. The Zubde^t-ul-Mugamat . Only
says that Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi had been in Agra for a
long time. But it does not give any specific period. It
further says that when he did not return home for a long

contd...

91

which was the Capital, Sirhindi pondered over the unhappy
political situation, as well as the deteriorating religious
environment at the Mughal Court. He also contacted eminent
nobles of the time.l At Agra also Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
wrote an Arabic treatise . Ithbat-un-Nubuwyjah •

At Agra Ahmad Sirhind came into contact with Faizi and
Abul Fazl. Both had great regard for the Shaikh and held him
in high esteem. He frequently visited these brothers and

f.n. no.4 contd.

time, his father Shaikh Abdul Ahad reached Agra and
asked him to return home; (see, p.133). A modern writer
Yohanan Friedmann rightly says that Ahmad Sirhindi
stayed at Agra for an unspecified period, (See, Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi . London 1971, p.XIII). Another modern
scholar Muhammad Masud Ahmad thinks that Sirhindi stayed
at Agra from 990/1583 to 1000/1593; (See, Sirat-i-
Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Sani . p.280). But it does not seem

correct as according to both Zubdat-ul-Maaamat , and
Hazarat ul-Quds , Khwaja Muhammad Sadiq, the eldest son
of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, was born in 1000/1593 in
Sirhindi and the latter was present there at that time;
(See Z,M. . p.300, H.Q. , p.220). It appears that he left
Agra at the end of 998/1591 or in the beginning of
999 /1592 because in his way to Sirhind, he had married

Shaikh Sultan Thanesaris daughter (See, Infra p.).

Thus the period of Sirhindi's stay at Agra can be
specified from 990/1583 to 998/1591, eight years.

1. Friedmann says that Sirhindi had been invited to the
Mughal Court, (see Shaikh Aluuad Sirh i ndi . p.Xlll). But
the Rauzat-ul-Qajyyamiva tells us that the intention of
the saint visit to Agra was to meet eminent ulama and
scholars who had taken abode in the Mughal capital. See,
p.62). It seems correct.

92

discussed various subjects with them. Once he sat with Abul
Fazl discussing the importance of Philosophy, escpecially
the Greek philoopher, their metaphysical thought and
rational approach. Abul Fazl supported these philosophers,
and defended them, whereas Ahmad Sirhitidi opposed them and
criticised their views and thought. He strongly argued and
quoted Imam Ghazali.- 1 saying, "The greuk philosophers have
nothing their own. Most of their learnings have been
plagiarised from the ancient scriptures of the early
prophets. The.ir own inventions, logic {ind Mathematics are
useless for IslaK*,."2 Then Abul Fazl called Imam Ghazali
stupid, and his thought as irrational. Annoyed by this
comment against a highly esteemed religious scholar. Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi left him, saying that if Abul Fazl did not
know how to behave himself, he should not sit in scholarly
gatherings and talk about knowledge and sciences. Thereafter
he did not meet Abul Fazl for a few days and avoided his
company and refrained from discussions with him. Finally

1. For biography and philosophy of Imam Muhammad al-Ghazali
see; Shibli Numani, Al-Ghazali (Urdu), Azamgarh
(Reprint) 1966; and Muhammad Umavuddin, The Ethical
Philosophy of al-Ghazali . Aligarh lp62.

\

2 .

For Imam Ghazali's views in this context, see, Ihva-ul-
]Jl.u.ra~ud-Pin, Cairo 1888; English translation by Fazl-ul-
Karim, vol.I, Delhi 1984, pop.29-llp.

93

Abul Fazl apologized to and invited him to his residence.^

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was also on friendiy terms with
Faizi and visited his house very often. Faizi was also
highly impressed by Shaikh Ahmad's erudite personality and
ainccrcly regarded hie poily and scholarship. It is said
that once the Shaikh went to Faizi's residence and found him
writing Quranic oxegesis, Sawati-ul-Illj am^ indotless words.
Faizi had discontSnued the transfer because he found himself
involved in certain intricacies he could not unravel. So
Faizi sought the Shaikh's help. Though the Shaikh himself
was not in the habit of writing in undotted words, he solved
Faizi's problem and wrote a few pages. This greatly
surprised Faizi.3

1. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . pp.131-2.

Hashim Kishmi says that he got this information from a
pupil of AbulFazl whom he met personally.

2. A commentary on the holy Quran without any dotted
letter. It has been characterised by critics tobe
almost a "useless piece of Arabic writing. It was
completed in 1002/1593. It is reported that on its
completion many contemporary ulama raised their voice
and submitted petition against its author, but on
Faizi's satisfactory remarks, they withdrew themselves,
See, Muntakheb-ut-Tawarikh . Volume IIII, p.300). Also,
Shaikh Farid Bhakkari, Zakhirat-ul-Khawanin , Vol.I,
Karachi 1961, pp.64-65; Also, The Encyclopaedia of
Islam . Vol.II, p.871.

3. As Badayuni says that Faizi composed Sawati-ul-Ilham in
a state of drunkenness and ritual impurity, (See,
Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.III, p.300), some modern
scholars write that thus the claim of Sirhindi's
followers, that he collaborated in the completion of one
of its parts, seems untenable. (Soe, Encyclopaedia of
Islam, Vol.II, p.871). It may be mentioned in this
context that no contemporary authority has made any
claim in this regard. The Zubdat-ul-Maaamat and the
Hazarat-ul-Quds state that Sirhindi helped Faizi only on
one occasion, as has been described above, and wrote
only few pages.

94

The author of Rauzat-ul-Qaiyvumiya says that during his
stay at Agra, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi fascinated a number of
Muslim Ulama and scholars by his captivating scholarship.
They attended his lectures and studied tafseer and Hadith
with him. Even top officials and military men attended to
their advantage.*

It was around the end of 998/1591 or the beginning of
994/1592 that the Shaikh's father Makhdum Abdul Ahmad Faruqi
reached Agra, from Sirhind, to meet his sgn as he had not
seen Shaikh Ahmad for some years, and ^sked him to leave
Agra and return to Sirhind. 2 Consequently the Shaikh left
Agra for Sirhind, and enroute passed through Thanesar, where
the father and the son met Shaikh Sultan Thanesari^, who

1. Rauzat-ul-Oaiyyamiva (Urdu) Part I, p.(j2.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.133.

3. Badayuni has given the following account of Shaikh
Sultan Thanesari;

He acquired the honour of performing the

pilgrimage to Mecca and Madina and was well-versed in
those branches of learning which depend on the memory.
For a long time he was in the imperial services, and
worked for four years, alone and without any co¬
adjustor, in the project of the translation of
Mahabharata which is known as the Rama llama, and what
was begun by Najib Khan, was finished by him. On account
of an accusation of the crime of cow-ki’iling, which wan
brought against him by the Hindus of Thanesar# an order
was issued for his banishment of Bakkar. Abdur Rahim
Khan-i-Khanan who was in those days incharge of the Suba
of Multan, treated him with great consideration and
kindness. He took Shaikh Sultan with him and promised to
\ procure that reversal of the sentence of banishment

contd..

95

accorded them a warm welcome, and even arranged, after due
negotiations, to marry her daughter to Shaikh Ahmad. 1
Thereafter they returned to Sirhind, where the Shaikh Ahmad
started his family life. In the mean time he fell ill very
seriously. The illness caused acute weakness but gradually
he recovered. In Sirhind, Shaikh Ahmad imparted education to
the students in his ancestral seminary, and spent most of
the time in offering prayer and meditatipn. He would serve
his old father and attend him with great love, sincerity and
care. Very often he consulted Shaikh Abdul Ahad Faruqi, his
father, in various matters of Islamic tehplogy and mysticism
and made discussions with him on various topics of Quranic
sciences, Hadith, fiah , Kalam and tasfiwwuf . The father
himself imparted Ahmad Sirhindi the intricacies of spiritual
process of different sufi silisilahs. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi

f.n. no.3 contd..

which had been passed against him. Haji Sultan returned
secretly to his native place, and Khan-i-Khanan, after
conquerring Asirgarh and Burhanpur, prayed in one of his
petitions for the reversal of the sentence against him.
His request was granted and Emperor Akbar ordered Abul
Fazl to appoint him the Karori of Thonesar and Karnal,
(See, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.III, pp.118-9).

According to Rauzat-ul-Oaivyumjva , Shaikh Sultan
was hanged to death by the order of Emperor Akbar in
some false accusation. (See its Urdu translation. Part
I, p.36).

1. Rauzat-ul-Qaivvumiva , Part I (Urdu), p. 68

It is reported that Shaikh Sulj.an Thanesari had
already been spiritually instructed in a vision by the
Holy Prophet of Islam to give his daughter in marriage
to Shaikh Ahmad Sihindi. Shaikh Sultan had also been
informed, through the vision, of the face and looks of
Shaikh Ahmad.

9o

studied Fusus-ul-Hikam « Futuhat-i-Makkiva and Awarif-ul-
Maarif under his father's scholarly and spiritual guidance.
It appears that the main theme of Sheikha Abdul Ahad's
tenching to his son was the concept of Wahadat-ul-Wuiud or
the Unity of Being. Moreover, the Makhadum initiated his
son, Ahmad Sirhindi, into his own mystic discipline and
conferred the philafat in the Chistiya, Suharwardiya and the
Qadiriya silsilahs upon him by declaring him his spriritual
successor .-*•

In 1000 A.H./1591 A.D. Khwaja Muhammad Sadiq, the
eldest son of the Shaikh, was born in Sirhind.2 in the
meantime, most probaby in 1002/1593-4, Sirhindi wrote his
other treatise Radd-i-Rawafiz which refutes the Shia sect
and ideology.^ It was the month of Shabarv 1005/March 1597
that Sirhindi's second son Khwaja Muhantmad Saeed was born.^
Two years later on Wednesady, the 17th Jamad I 1007/6th
December 1598 his father Abdul Ahad Faruqj passed away at
the ripe age of eighty years.5 shajkh Ahmad was now

1. Shaikh Ahmad^Sirhindi, Mabda'-wa-Maad , Karachi, 1904,
pp.9-10.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.300.

3. see. Introduction.

4. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.309.

5. Rauzat-ul-Qaivvumiva . Part I (Urdu), p.33.
Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . pp.121-22.

97

unanimously accepted as the spiritual head of his father's
disciples and followers.^ In the the very same year, on
Friday 11th Shawal/27th April 1599, the third son of Shaikh
Ahmad Khwaja Muhammad Masum was born^ # uisala-i-Tahlillva ^,
another brochure of the Shaikh, is also reported to have
been compiled in 1007/1599^.

1. Ilazarat-ul-Quds . Vol.II, p.33.
Mabdu-o-Maad . pp.9-10.

Akhbar-ul-Akhvar .

p.306; Rauzat-ul-Qaivvumiva . Part l,
pp.30-37.

2 .

3.

Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.315.

For details see,Illt JPOclLictlOil ,

4. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.131.

CHAPTER-III

INITIATION INTO THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER BY KHWAJA BAQI BILLAH

CHAPTER III

INITIATION INTO THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER BY KHWAJA BAQI

BILLAH

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, since his very youth, had keen
interest in performing Ha i i . the pilgrimage to Mecca, and
visiting the mausolium of the holy Prophet at Madina. But on
account of his father's old age, continuousillness and
deteriorating health, he wac not able to leave him alone as
he had to look after and take care of him. As mentioned
earlier, it was 17th Jamada II 1007/ 5th January 1599, that
Shaikh Abdul Ahad passed away at sirhind. Now, after some
time. Shaikh Ahmad decided to fulfil his years old desire
and achieve his goal, the performance of Hai j . He therefore
left Sirhind in order to start his pious journey. It was the
month of Rabi II 1008/October 1599 that Ahmad Sirhindi,
enroute to Mecca and Madina, reached Delhi and stayed with
Maulana Hasan Kashmiri^, one of the fast friends and class
fellow during hi^studies at Siyalkot. The Maulana informed
Shaikh Ahmad of a saint, Khwaja Baqi Billah, who had
recently come to and settled down in Delhi, and even become
popular among the local people. The inhabitants of Delhi,

1. He originally belonged to Kashmir but permanently

resided at Delhi where he himself had joined the mystic
discipline of Khwaja Baqi Biljah. For details see
Nuzhat-ul—Khawatir . Part 5, p.134

99

whether common people, government officials, sufis and
ulama . frequently visited his Khanqah to obtain his spritual
blessings. Hasan Kashmiri emphasised Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
to meet Khwaja Baqi Billah and even took him to the saint.

Khwaja Baqi Billah

Khwaja Baqi Billah holds an important position in the
annals of Islam in India. He left deep impressions upon the
contemporary society and caused a groat change in the
religious environment of the country. His main contribution
is to bring together many eminent personalities of the time
- religious and political, under his own mystic discipline
by attracting them to the basic sources of Islamic thought.
It is not an exaggeration to say that il Baqi Billah had not
come to Delhi, the great person Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi would
not have appeared in the religious scene of the seventeenth
century. It was the Khwaja who inspired Ahmad Sirhindi to
initiate a movement throughout the country for the
revivalism of Islamic Laws, i.e. Shariat , and values.
Professor K.A. Nizami is rightly of the bpinion that the
personality of Khwaja Baqi Billah was the source of all the
latter Muslim‘revivalist movements in Indian sub-continent.•*•

Hayat-j-Shaikh Abdul Hagq Muhaddith Dphlawi , Delhi, 1964,
p.134.

Syed Raziuddin ,' Commonly called Khwaja Muhammad Baqi
Biliah, was born on day, the 5th 7,i \ Ilijja 971 A.II./16th
December 1563 A.D. in Kabul.^ His father Qazi Abdus Salam,
geneologically a Quraishi Syed, was famous for his peity and
scholarsip and originally belonged to Samarqand.^ From his
mother’s side Khwaja Baqi Billah was a descendant of Shaikh
Umar Yaghistani (ob^ who was the maternal grand
father of Khwaja Obaidullah Ahrar^, a well-known Naqshbandi
saint of Central Asia.

Since his very boyhood Khwaja Baqi Billah was devoted
to seclusion and meditation.5 He started his formal and

1. Khwaja Muhammad Hashim Kishmi, Zubdat-ul-Maaamat , p.5.

2. Ibid. Also, Badruddin Sirhindi, Ilazarat-ul-Ouds (Urdu
Translation), Vol.I, Lahore 1343, p.215.

3. Sheikh Umar Yaghistani belonged to Baghistan, a town
situated near Tashqand, and geneologically he was the
seventh descendant of Umar al-Faruq, the second Pious
Caliph of Islam. Sheikh Umar's tomb is still in Tabrez
in Central Asia. For details see, Ali bin Husain al-Waiz
al-Kashifi, Rashahat-i-Ain-ul-Havat , Kanpur 1911,
pp.208-9.

4. Also an important saint of Central Asia. He left a deep
impact on his contemporaries specially the rulers and
occupies a significant place in the history of Islam in
that region. For his biographical and other details see
Kashifi, op.cit. . pp.220-30.

5. Hazarat-ul-Ouds (Urdu), Vol.I, p.215.

traditional education under Maulana Sadiq Halwai^, a
renowned scholar of Central Asia, and, within a very short
span of time, distinguished hi nine If amongst the students.

Even before he completed his education, he was so well-

versed in different sciences that he could easily explain
controversial points of Islamic theology. 2 lie also
accompanied his teacher Transoxiana where he met and

benefited from a number of sufi-saints.3

The contemporary sources reveal that Khwaja Baqi
Billah spent a considcrblc long time in his myotic travclo.
He visited Hindustan and met his relatives who held high
positions in' the army. They even persuaded him to join the
army but he declined.^ He went to Lahore and kept the

1. Maulana Sadiq Halwai was among the Leading divines of
Transoxiana. On his return from Mecca, after Hajj, he
made a sojourn at Kabul on the request of Mirza Muhammad
Hakim, the ruler of Afghanistan. Baqi Billah came into
contact with him during this period. He is also reported
to have visited India during the reign of Emperor Akbar
and return home in 972/1564-5. Bee Muhammad Baqa,
Mirat-i-Jahan Numa (MS.) (British (4useum/Rotograph in
the Research Library, Department pf History, A.M.U.
Aligarh) , f.273a .

2. Zubdat-uI-Muqamat , P. 6

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid, pp.6-7.

102

company of eminent saints. He studied some mystic literature
there which kindled in him a love for Tasawwuf Islamic
mysticism. He carried on vigoriously his search for truth
despite heavy odds and did not relingquish his desire to
find out mashaikh i.e. Muslim saints. Incidentally he came
into contact with a maizub who influenced him very deeply.^
It is reported that India Khwaja Baqi Bill'ah also journeyed
through the region of Sambhal, presently/! a tehsill in the
modern Moradabad district, and called on Shaikh Allah
Bakhsh^. who was a khalifa of Syed Ali Qawam of Jaunpur.^

Thereafter he returned to Afghanistan and again
travelled in Central Asia. Ultimately lie came back to kabul
and joined his mother who was worried and distressed at his

1. Ibid., p.8.

N.B. It may be mentioned that traditional accounts of
eminent founders of different silsilahs almost
invariably contain story of contact with mystic
essentries. Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti also is reported to
have been influenced by a maizub . See, Siyar-ul-Arifin
(Rotograph in History Research Library, A.M.U.).

2. He resided at 'Garh Mukteshwar’, a town in the present
Meerut district of U.P., and died there in 1002/1593.
For his biographical details see Badayuni, op.cit. .
Vol.III, p.58. Also Nasim Ahmad Faridi, Tazkira-i-K hwaia
Baqi Billah . Lucknow 1978, p.15.

Syed Ali Qawam, a famous Chishti saint, was a khalifa of
Shaikh Badruddin of Jaunpur, a spiritual descendant of
Shaikh Nasiruddin Charagh of Delhi, For his details see
Safinat-ul-Auliva . p.190.

3 .

103

long absence and poor health.^ Later on, he again left for
Samarqand where he met Shaikh Iftikhar^ and Khwaja Obaid^.
He also called on Amir Abdullah Balkhi^ and benefited from
hio spiritual discourses. He is also reported to have been
inspired during these days by the spirit of Khwaja Bahauddin
Naqshband.5 • Throughput his stay at Samarqand Baqi Billah
whole heartedly dSvoted himself to meditation and spiritual
exercises. 6 Then he proceeded to Kashmir and remained there

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . P. 8.

All Naqshabandi Mujaddidi sources refer to her as a
pious Syed lady who was keenly devoted to the religion
and the service of the saints. She is also reported to
have accompanied Baqi Billah to Delhi where he settled
down permanently. See Zubdat-ul-Magamat . pp.8-9.

2. lie was descendant of Khwaja Ahmad Yaswi, the founder of
the silsilah-i-Khwaiqan . See Zubdat-ul-Magamat , pp.8-9.

3. Khwaja Obaid was a Khalifa of Maulana Lutufullah, a
follower of Khajgi Dahidi who resided near Samarqand.
See Safinat-ul-Auliva . p.

4. Also famous saint of Central Asia. No details is
available in historical records.

5. Born in 718/1318 at Qasr-i-Arifin near Bukhara, Khwaja

Bahauddin Naqshband was the founder of Naqshbandi
silsilah. Since his early boyhood he was keenly devoted
to spiritual practices and meditation. Later he became a
disciple of Syed Amir Kulal (ob. 772/1564). He also
benefited from the spirit of Khwaja Abdul Khaliq
Ghajdwani. Khwaja Bahauddin strictly followed the
Shariat and practices according to Il anafite school. For
his details, see Maulana Abdur Rahman Jami, Nafahat-ul-
Uns, Calcutta, 1968, pp.439-53. Also, Rashahat , pp.53-

55, Safinat-ul-Auliva . p.78.

6. Zubdat-ul-Magamat . p.10.

104

for about two years in the company of Shaikh Baba Wali.^
When the latter died in 1001/1592, Khwaja Baqi Billah
returned to Central Asia via Lahore^ and came into contract
with Maulana Khwajgi Amkangi^ who lived in Amkana, a town
in the vicinity of Samarqand. He was so highly impressed by

1. A Naqshbandi 'saint and a khalifa of Shaikh Husain
Khwarizmi, Baba Wali belonged to Rhwarizm. He also
joined the mystic discipline of Shaikh Muhammad Kubrawi.
He came to Kashmir in 999/1590-1 and stayed at the
Khangah of Syed Ali Hamadani. In Kashmir he attracted a
large number of people and became asylum for all of
them. When Mirza Yadgar rebelled against Emperor Akbar,
Baba Wali vehemently criticised hin} and predicted a
great success of Akbar. It is said that Mirza Yadgar had
given poison to him. He died in 1003/159. For details
see Ghulam Sarwar Lahori, Khazinat-ul-Asfiya . Vol.II,
Kanpur, 1914, p.337. Also Muhammad Azam Shah, Waaiat-i-
Kashmir . Lahore, 1303,p.110.

2. But according to Shah Waliullah, Khwaja Baqi Billah,
after the death of Shaikh Baba Wali, came to Delhi and
made a sojourn at the khangah of Shaikh Abdul Aziz

.) whose son and sucqessor Shaikh Qutb-

ul-Alam warmly received and gave him spiritual training.
Shaikh Qutb-i-Alam also conferred his Khilafat in the
Chishti discipline upon Baqi Billah and exhorted him to
go to Central Asia and meet eminent saints there. See
Anfas-ul-Arifin (Urdu Translation), Deoband, p.353.

N.B.: The contemporary records especially Zubdat-ul-

M agamat . and Mazarat- ul-Oudn provide no such information
and say that from Kashmir Khwaja Baqi Billah returned to
Central Asia.

3. Maulana Khwajgi Amkangi was an eminent Naqshbandi saint

of Central Asia. He was disciple and Khalifa of his
father Maulana Derwish Muhammad. Maulana died in a ripe
age of ninety years in 1008/1599 in Amkana, a town near
Samarqand. See H.Q. (Urdu) Vol.I, pp.210-13. N.B.: As

Rashahat was completed in 909/1503-04, it does not
supply any information of Maulana Amkangi who flourished
in later period.

ms

the spiritual attainments of Maulana Amkangi that he joined
his mystic discipline.^ Though he underanother journey to
Transoxiana and called on some sufi qaints but soon he
returned to Samarqnad where he kept he company of his
spiritual mentor and received Khilafat from him. The Maulana
directed him to proceed towards India and patronize the
Naqshbandhi silsilah there.^ in compliance with his pirs
orders, Khwaja Baqi Billah left for India and stayed at
Lahore for fourteen months.3

Finally he reached and settled down in Delhi in
1008/1599. It was the time when Islamic orthodoxy had been
suppressed by the Mughal Emperor. Baqi Billah established a
Khanqah near the Firuzi Fort and and devoted himself to the

1. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.ll.

2. It is reported (that once Khwaja Baqi Billah saw a dream
that a beautiful bird was sitting on his hand and he was
poaring the saliva of his mouth into her beak. In
return, the bird gave him the particles of sugar. When
next morning the Khwaja related 'the dream to his
spiritual mentor, he told him that such'type of bird was
found in India. He said to Baqi Billah that he should
go to Hindustan and propagate the Maqshbandi silsilah
there. Maulana Amkangi also foretold that in India Baqi
Billah would come into contact with a great spiritual
and religious personality of the time who would join his
mystic discipline. See Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.140.

3.

Ibid.

105

popularity of the Naqshbandi silsilah. His influence soon

sprea and a large number of people flocked to him.-*- Most of

his time was spent either in prayer and meditation or in

teaching and reforming his visitors and followers.2 Both

Zubdat-u;-Maaamat and Hazarat-ul-Quds state that Khwaja Bagi

Billah was a quiet man who led a simple and secluded life

and did not like publicity of his spiritual attainments.

When asked to clarify and explain any mystic problem, he

spoke exhaustively and convincingly. He replies gave

evidence of his deep knowledge and cogent reasoning.3

Whoseover approached him, was highly impressed by his

qualities of head an heart and above all his humility had a

tremendous impact on his visitors. Ho generally avoided

enlisting seekers to his own mystic discipline and advised

them to find out some other sitable guide. He went to the

extent of saying that they should inform him if they OcnnO

that

found any suitable guide so^he himself could benefit from
him. 4

1. State and Culture in Medieval India, p.163.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . pp.14-32, Hazr^t-ul-Ouds (Urdu),
Vol.I, pp.221-22.'

3. Ibid.

4. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . pp.15-16.

10 ?

Continous pcnctcnces and vigils had so impaired his
health that at the age of forty he looked as a man of eighty
years. He died on Saturday 25th Jamadiul Akhir 1012 A.H./
30th Nobembcr 1603 and wao hurried near Qadamgah-i-Rasul,
the north side of the Piruzi Fort in Delhi•*

Khwaja Daqi Billah was survived by two sons, Khwaja
Obaidullah, commonly called Khwaja Kalan, and Khwaja
Abdullah, known as Khwaja Khurd. 2 Both these sons were

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat #. p.32. Also Kullivat-i-Khwaia Baai

Billah . Lahore, 1968, p.65.

2. Ibid., pp.61-66, Hazrat-ul-Ouds (Urdu), pp.26-65.

N.B.: Maulana Nasim Ahmad Faridi is of the opinion that
Khwaja Obaidullah was the younger son of Khwaja Baqi
Billah and he was known as "Khwaja J<hurd" whereas the
elder son was Khwaja Abdullah who was commonly called
"Khwaja Kalan". The Maulana's statement is based on the
treatise Asrariva . produced by Syed Muhammad Kamal
Sambhali in 1069 A.H. See, Tazkira ffhwaia Baai Billah >
pp.39-66.

Though Maulana Faridi has thoroughly discussed the
controversy and provided evidences in his favour but our
sources Zubdat-ul-Maaamat and Hazarat-ul-Quds mention
them as Obaidullah alias Khwaja Kalan, and Abdullah as
Khwaja Khurd. Moreover, the famous work of 'Khwaja
Kalan'. Mubligh-ur-Riial also refers its author as
Obaidullah. The Manuscript of this work is possessed by
Maulana Azad Library of A.M.U. Aligarh. It is clearly
mentioned on the title of the book*

Besides, in the beginning of the book, the author
(Khwaja Kalan) gives his name as Obaidullah. It appears
that the manuscript was both written and transcribed in
1066 A.H. If there would be any controversy between the
real name and alias of the author, he had not approved
it.

ins

great scholars 1 and renowned sufis. 2 They worked for the
development of Islamic mysticism and showed great in
popularization of the Naqshbandi silsilah. Baqi Billah's
chief Khalifa and spiritual successor Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi,
also known as Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani . holds a very special

1. The contemporary and later sources present them as

eminent scholars and author of various books. The elder
son Khwaja Obaidullah, as mentioned above, produced a
Persian treatise Mubliah-ur-Riial which throws valuable
light on the religious condition of Akbar and Jahangir's
reigns. Instead of Maulana Az^d Library, A.M.U.

Aligarh, the Indian Office Library also owns a

manuscript of the work. For a detailed introduction
see, Muhammad Aslam, Tarikhi Magala t. Delhi, 1970, p.61-
82. Aslam also refers to it in his pin-i-Ilahi aur uska
pas Manzar , Delhi 1969, pp.21-22.

Obaidullah, Khwaja Kalan, is plso reported to have
compiled another work Tazkira-i-Mashaikh . It consists
of one lakh poetic verses in praise of different Muslim
saints. See Hazarat-ul-Quds (Urdu), p.261.

The younger son of Khwaja Baqi Billah, Abdullah,
generally known as 'Khwaja Khurd 1 was also a renowned
scholar. He had been a teacher of Shah Abdur Rahim, a
famous Muslim Scholar as well as tjie sufi-saint of the
eighteenth century and the illustrious father of Shah
Waliullah of Delhi. For details see Anfas-ul-Arifin
(Urdu), p.58.

2. Both these sons of Khwaja Baqi Billah were eminent
saints of their time. For their mystcal achievements see
Zubdat-ul-Maqamat , pp. £ 1-69 and Ilazrat-ul-Ouds . Vol.I,
(Urdu), pp.260-65. Also see, Anfas-ul-Arifi n (Urdu),
pp.57-65, Tazkira Khwaja Baqi Billah , pp.39-83.

ins

position in the history of Islam in India.^ He accelerated
his master's mission by reversing the heretical trends of
his time and restoring the prestine purity of Isla. In the
words of Schinrim^l"He tried much more energitically to
follow the Naqshbandi practices for ameliorating the Muslim
society".2 A moreover, Shaikh Abdul IJaq Muhaddis Dehlavi,
also a famous, divine of the age, joined Khwaja Bayi Hi.13ah
mystic fold and sought his spiritual guidance.^ Shaikh

1. Although he compared quite a few books and treatise, his
main fame rests upon his 534 Persian letters, known as
Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani , run into three volumes. These
letters presents an accurate picture of his mystical, as
well as political accompalishments, and reveal his
scholarly approach. For his biography and other details
see Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . Hazrat-ul-Quds . Vol.II, Rauzat-
ul-Qaivvumiva . by Khwaja Kamaluddin Muhammad Ehsan.
Moreover, a large number of modern works both in Urdu
and in English are available.

2. A.Tiln«2Tn<iT ie SchllTlftl&l . , Islam in Indian Sub-

continent, Brlll-Leiden , !9go ,p.51

3. It is said Shaikh Abdul Ilaq had spiritually been

indicated by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Clilani, to join the
Naqshbandi discipline of Khwaja Baqi Billah and become
his disciple. See Sadiq Hamadani, Kalimat-us-Sadiain
(MS.) f.96a. The Shaikh himself writes in his treatise
Risala- j-Wasi^at J^aina "When I returned India, I got an
opportunity t6 meet Khwaja Mahamad Baqi Naqshbandi, for
a long time I performed Naqshbandi practices and

spiritual exercises and received the tracing of zikr ,
maraqaba , rabta , and Yad Dasht under him. See Havat-i-
Shaikh Abdul Ilaq of Muhaddis . pp.136-37.

Husamuddin 3 ,

Shaikh Ilahdad 2 and Shaikh Tajuddin 3

were

1. Previously he was in the royal service of Emperor. Since
his very boyhood Khwaja Husamuddin was attracted towards
the saints. This fondness of mystics initially made
relinquish his job. Later, ho reached Delhi and, met
Khwaja Baqi Billah and after some time became his
disciple. Husamuddin lived rest of his life at Khanqah
of the Khwaja and when the latter died; the whole
responsibility of the Khanqah went to Shaikh Husamuddin.
He looked after his master's children and take care of
the visitors of the Khwaja. lie died on 29th Ramazan
1040/22 and March 1631. He was the brother-in-law of
Faizi and Abdul Fazl. But they hqd hostile attitude
towards him as he criticised tfyeir activities and
opposed Akbar's religious policies. For details, see
Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . pp.70-77, Hazarat-ul-Ouds (Urdu),
270-275.

2. He too was a devout Khalifa and an old companion of
Khwaja Baqi Billah. He had joined'the saint at Lahore
during his first visit. The Khawajq, at his departure
for Central Asia, had left him at Lahore on his deputy.
He accompanied Baqi Billah to Delhi and remained there
throughout his life. All the responsibilities of the
lancer khana ^(free kitchen) of the Khangah of Khwaja
Baqi Billah were assigned to him. He died in Ramazan
1049/1639 and was burried near the grave of his
spiritual mentor. See Zubdat-ul-rMaaamat , pp.78-85,
Mazarat-ul-Ouds . pp. 275-276.

3. Another Khalifa of Khwaja Baqi Billah* 'Previously he had
affiliation in Chishtiya order with Shaikh Allah Bakhshi
of Garh Mukteshwar in Meerut district.

The Khwaja had deputed him to his native town to
Sambhal and asked to popularize Nuqshbandi teachings
there. After the Khwaja's death, Tajuddin first visited
Kashmir and then went to Mecca for Hajj pilgrimage.
There he came into contact with an erudite scholar and
mystic Shaikh Muhammad Ilan who after some time joined
his mystic discript ions. During his stay at Mecca
Shaikh Tajuddin translated some renowned Persian works
into Arabic such as Rashaha t-i-Ain-u i-Ila yat of Kashifi.
When his favourite disciple Shaikh Ilan passed away,
Tajuddin left for India but after a brief stay there he
permanently migrated to Mecca via Lahore and Basrah. He
settled near the Kaba where he breathed his last on 22nd
Rabi-ul-Awwal 1052/1642. For details see, Zubadat-ul-
Muqamat , pp.86-87, Hazarat-ul-Quds . pp.265-270.

Ill

famous Khalifas of the Khwaja who devoted themselves to
their spiritual master and played important part in
disseminating the Naqshbandi order in In<|ia and abroad.

Khwaja Baqi Billah does not seem to have participated
in Mughal politics but it clearly appears that he was not
satisfied with the religious and political condition of the
time. He had settled down in Delhi at a time when the
policies of Emperor Akbar had created an environment of
distress and sorrow among the Muslims of India. The laws of
Islam had been suppressed and Muslims could not openly
fulfil their religious conventions.! Hence, the Khwaja
preached the importance of spiritual values in man's life
and revived people's interest in Shariat. Like his
spiritual predecessors, especially Khwaja Obaiduallh Ahrar,

* ' I

Baqi Billah believed in maintain cordial relations with the
ruling class in order to religiously and morally reform the

1. In this connection see Badayuni, M q n takhib-ut-Tawarikh
Vol.II. The letters of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also
reflect the religious condition of Akbar's reign. See
Muktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani . Vol.I, Letter No.47.

112

Muslim society and to remove the people's difficulties.
His peity and bearing drew towards him many important
personalities of the royal court. As all contemporary
sources are silent and give no information/ it is difficult
to presume whether Khwaja Baqi Billah ever came into contact
with Emperor Akbar. But according to Zubdat-ul-Maaamat he
had friendly he had friendly relations and did correspond
with some of the Mughal nobles who would send the coins of
gold and silver tohim.2

Nawab Syed Murtuza Khan, commonly called Shaikh Farid
Bukhari (ob. 1616) , an eminent Mughal noble, was highly
impressed by Khwaja Baqi Billah. He |ield the saint in high
esteem and provided him with all sprts of help. Shaikh
Muhammad ikram is of the opinion that the Khwaja 1 s mission
would not have secured great success in India within a short
period of four or five years if Shaikh Farid had not

1. Khwaja Obaidullah Abrar was the first Naqshbandi saint
who made contacts with and deeply influenced his
contemporary rulers. He freely mixed with them and
sought their help for the welfare of people. For details
see Rashahat-i-Ain-ul-Havat . pp.287-305. In this
connection also see Maktabat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani . Vol.I,
Letters No.47, 65.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.24.

113

cooperated with him. 1 2 3 4 5 He seem to have frequently visited
Baqi Billah at Delhi and obtained his spiritual blessings.2
It is reported that he had fixed daily allowances for the
follower of Baqi Billah and bore all the expenses of his
Khanqah. 1

The Khwaja also paid respect to Shaikh Farid Bukhari
and considered him his fast friend. He would say to his fast
friend. He would say to his followers that Shaikh Farid had
many rights on them and due to his grace and existance, they
had enjoyed great spiritual benefits and pleasures.^ The
collection of his letters continous several letters
addressed to Shaikh Farid. It appears that from his
malfuzat always addressed Shaikh Farid in his letters as
"Qiblagahi Salamat Bashand" means his magcsty be prosper.^

1. Rud-i-Kausar , pp.186-87.

2. Towards the end of 1601 (1010) Shaikh Farid Bukhari was
assigned the duty to check the levy of unauthorised dues
by some corrupt officials on the routes from Agra to
Lahore. (See Akbarnama . Vol.III, p.802). It seems that
during his visit to Delhi and Lahorehe would meet Khwaja
Baqi Billah.

3. Gandhi Shattari, Gulzar-i-Abrar (Urdu), p.77.

4. Maktubat . I, 45. Kullivat . p.57.

5. Kullivat . p.57.

Tho Khwaja never liked Shaikh Farid to be criticised by

anyone. If anybody made objection on tjieir friendship, he

would reply thathe did not find any injunction of Shar
( Shriate) to saver his terms with Shaikh Farid.The latter
continued his favours and kindness even after the death of
the saint and did not break his relations with Khwaja*s sons
and followers. He looked after the family of Khwaja Baqi
Billah and often visited his Khangah where he met and

discussed their problems with Khwaja Hqsamuddin.2 He had
cordial relations^ith Shaikh Abdul llaqq Muhaddith Dehlawi^
and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.^ The latter in many of his

maktubat has acknowledged Shaikh Farid Bukhari's help and
cooperation for his spiritual mentor. In all his letters
to Shaikh Farjd, Sirhindi seems to be highly thankful to

r

him for his sympathetic behaviour towads Khwaja Baqi
Billah.5

1. Maktubat . I, 45.

Kullivat # p.57.

2. Malfuzat-i-Rhwaia Khurd (MS.) M.A. L. Aligarh, f.18.

3. For Shaikh Farid's relation with Shaikh Abdul Haq see,
Hayat-i-Shaikh Abdul Hag Muhaddith Dehlawi . pp. 233 - 36 .

Muhammad Umar, Shaikh Farid Bukhari*s relations with
contemporary Ulama (Unpublished article) IHC Volume
1977, Department of History, A.M.U. Aligarh.

4. Ibid. Also see Rud-i-Kausar , pp.186-189.

5. Maktubat # Vol.I, see letter No.45 and 54.

115

Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanam, another eminent noble of
Emperor Akbar, w$3 also influenced Khwaja Baqi Billah.
According to Zubdat-ul-Maqama t, once ho was informed that
the Khwaja was intending to go on Hajj, he accordingly sent
ruppes one lakh for travelling expenses but the saint
refused to accept it saying that he did not like to spend
the money collected from the people for his own purpose.^

Moreover, some other outstanding personalities of the
Mughal court are also reported to have become followers of
the Khwaja. Khan-i-Azam Mirza Aziz Koka and Sadr-us-Sudur
Miran Sadr-i-Jahan had close contacts with him. The letter
approached and requested the saint for initiating him into
his mystic discipline. It appears that the Khwaja had
accepted him as his murid ^. The Zubdat-ul-Maaamat contains a
letter of Khwaja Baqi Billah which reveals that Miran Sadr-
i-Jahan consulted the saint in the reveals that Miran Sadr-
i-Jahan consulted the saint in the matter of distribution of
land grants and charity in cash.3 The Khwaja wrote

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . pp. 24-25.

2. See Rud-i-Kausar . pp.111-12.

3. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat , pp.144-45.

letters to Mirza Aziz Koka and exhorted him for adherence to
Shariat . The collection of the Khwaja's letters contains an
epistle which seems to have been sent to Sadr-i-Jahan. It
recommends (Shaikh Ahmad Sirhin<ji to be given) some annual
grant to bo given to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.*

Almost all the teachings and mystic thought of Khwaja
Baqi Billah * revolve-around the Kitab-wa-Sunnah # i.e. the
Quran and the UadiEh . He laid great stress on Shariat . i.e.
the Laws of Islam, and considered Tasawwuf a complete
devotion and surrender to it.2 He used to say that a mystic
should follow the Shariat first and then turn to the mystic
path and principles.3 To him it is tlje duty of a sufi to
inspire and persuade the people and other sufis for the
propagation, protection and furtherence of the Shariat . He
stressed the purification of the soul by strictly adhering
to the practices of the Holy Prophet. He would say that

1 ♦ Kullivat-i-Khwaia Baqi Billah f P. 2.0 t

2. Kullivat-i-Khwaia Baqi Billah . Lahqre 1968, p.20.

3. Zubdat-ul-Muaamat . p.56.

717

nobody could become a perfect saint without following the

Hoy Prophet and his companions, i.e. the path of Ahl-i-

Sunnat wa Al-Jamat. 1 The fulfilment of all the spiritual

blessings and no action or saying of any saint can be

completed with it. He attached great importance to the

study of Quran . Hadith and Fjgh , the Islamic jurisprudence

and exhorted his followers to transalate them into actions.

The Khwaja emphasized the importance of obligatory prayers

* ,

as means for attaining Gnosis (Maarifat). z He himself was
careful in performing his religious duties and five time
namaz . The author of Kalimat-us-Sadioin says, " None of his
actions was contrary to the teachings of the Shariat .3 He
paid great respect to the followers of Shariat ^ and
supported the actions, ideas and sayings of the elders
saints as they were true followers of the Holy Prophet and
acted upon the principles of Islam. According to him these
followers of Islam deserve to be maticulously followed.^

1 .

Kulliyat. b.21.

2.

Zubdat-ul-Muaamat.

p. 49.

3.

Sadiq Ilamadani, op

.cit.,

4.

Kulliyat. p.133.

5.

Zubdat-ul-Muaamat.

p.36.

The other important advice of Khwaja Baqi Billah to his
disciples was to earn their livelihood through legal means
an personal effects. He a'lways exhorted for he lawful
morsel.He would say that a mystic should care not only
for the legality of food but for other things also, He
should check whether the fuel, water and utensils are
obtained lawfully. 2 The Khwaja himself did not take any
particle of food obtained from doubtful means.3

Baqi Billah strongly favoured tawajckul, (trust in God) ,
and considerd it one of the significant features of Islamic
mysticism. According to him it causes too much confidence in
God and involves the absorption of individuality in the
Essence. To hi tawakkul does not mean sitting idle and
doing no work. But every one should keep himself busy in
some job.^ He would say that means were like doors and
every one should make use of them. Whosover closes the
doors, commits mistake. Life of lathargy and parasitism is
definitely condemned.^ The Khwaja laid great emphasis on

1. Kullivat . p.22.

2. Ibid., p.34.

3. Zubdat-ul-Muqamat . pp.22-24.

4. Kulliyat, p.22.

Ibid. Zubdat-ul-Muqamat . p.54.

5.

119

rabita or tasawwur-i-Shaikh ^ and enjoined his disciples to
practice it regularly. 2 Tuuba, the penetence, war. aJr.o an
important exhortation of the Khwaja. According to him it is
the initial stage of mystic path. It dissociates irom sins
anddevelops a love for God. Whenover he initiated disciple,
he exhorted him to repent from sins committed in the past
and to make a reasolve to follow Shariat; in future.^ To him
the perfect tauba is to cutt off onsejjf from the wordly
affairs.4 The teachings of Khwaja Baqi Billah also
highlight zuhd , qanaat . uzlat and Sab£. Defnying Zuhd he
writes in aletter, "A mystic should abandon all desires
whether of this world or of the world hereafter. No sufi can
achieve his goal Unless the renounces this world and devotes
himself to Almightly Allah.^ lie would say that qanaat was
the abandonment of superfluous things, satisfaction only
with undispensable commodities (most essential for life),

1. An important sufi practice which is enjoyed by
visualising the spiritual mentor as a source of
spiritual inspiration. . Almost all the sufi-saints
rely upon it for their inner development.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.17.

3. Ibid.

4. Hazaratul-Quds (Urdu), p.230.

5. Ibid

and to obtain from the wastage of money and provisions. To
him, the perfect ganaat is the aatisfacion only with
undispensable commodities (most essential for life), and to
obstain from the wastage of money and provision. To hi, the
perfect aanaat is the satisfaction with God and His love.*
Discussing uzlat . the selfseclusion, he says that a mystic
should keep himself a loof from the society and constatnly
re-examine his spiritual conditions, He should join his
disciples and family with the intention of human welfare,
only when it is indespensible. A mystic should banish all
thoughts except those of God and Hig religion. He should
purify his heart also.2 As far sabr, (patience), he mean it
to give up all pleasures of soul (ruh) and to abstain from
desirous things.3 Emphasis on zikr and tawaiiuh is also
laid in the Khwaja's thought. He defines Zikr as to forgot
everything, even himself, except God whereas the process of
abstaining from all desires and devoting himself to God is
tawaiiuh .4 Moreover, marauaba (Meditation), is also an

1. Hazaratul-Quds (Urdu), p.230.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid.

essential feature of Baqi Billah's spiritual exhortations*

i

Through the process of maraqoba a mystics concentration on
the infinite and the eternal is developed. The mystic
itinerant passes from one station (maqam) to another. It
creates in mystic a love for God. According to him maraqaba
with love (muhabbat), becomes an effective process of inner
development.1 He used to say that one could become a
perfect saint only by adopting these features. If one does
not follow the rules he can not be a perfect sufi.2

It appears, Khwaja 13 aqi Billah believed in WAlidat-ul,-
Wuiud (Unity of Being) and supported the views of Shaikh
Muhiyyuddin Ibn-i-Arabi. The concept of Wahdat-ul-Wuiud
within the framework -of S]iar_iat was his favourite doctrine.
But during the iast days of his life he had changed his
views. He is said to have uttered that Tauhid-i-Wuiudi was a
narrow lane whereas the broad way Was another.3 it is
reported that he had indicated the danger related to this
concept. lie would say that the faith in Tauhid (Monotheism),
is the most important pillar of Islam and it did not mean

1. Ibid., Zubdat-ul-Muaamat , p.42.

2. Hazarat-ul-Ouds . p.230.

3. Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani , Vol.I, Letter No.43. Also
Mubligh-ur-Riial (MS.), f.34b.

122

merely the affirmation of one God, but rejection of all
other and false Gods. He is omnipotent and omnipresent. None
can claim to share authority with ITi in -
The Khwaja and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi:

Thus the Khwaja deeply influence Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
when he reched his Khanaali first time with Maulana Hasan
Kashmiri. Baqi Billah warmly accorded and requested the
Shaikh to stay with him for some time, though hesitated in
the beginning but soon Shaikh Ahmad complied with the Khwaja
request. The latter is said to have* been spiritually
informed of Shaikh Ahmad's visit to him. When in Central
Asia, once he dreamt that a beautiful bird was siting on his
hand and he was poaring the Saliva of his mouth into lack.
In return, the bird gave him the particle^ of suger. When
Baqi Billah described the dream to his spiritual preceptor
Maulana Khwajgi Amkangi,^ the latter told that such type of
bird was found in India. He further said to Baqi Billah that

1. Zubdat-ul-Muqamat . p.30.

2. A great Naqshbandi saint of Central Asia who was a
disciple and spiritual successor of his father Maulana
Darwish Muhammad (ob. 970/1562). it is said that a
large number of ulama . sufis, and common people
frequently visited him and benefited from his spiritual
solace. Even Abdullah Khan Uzbek, tije ruler of Turan,
had great faith in him and presented gifts to him.
Maulana Khwajgi died in 1008/1599-1600 and was buried in
his native town Amkana in the vicinity of Samarqand. See
Hazarat-ul-Ouds (Urdu), Vol.I, pp.210-13.

123

he should go to Hindustan and propagate the Naqshbandi
silsilah there Maulana Khwajgi also foretold that in India
Baqi Billah would come into contact with a great personality
of the time who would join his mystic discipline.1

Both Khwaja Baqi Billah and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
considered their meeting, with each otjier, a great event in
their spiritual career.2 Accordingly, the Shaikh undertook
spiritual practices and meditation under the Khwaja's mystic

1. Zubdat-ul-Muoamat . p.141.

2. The Khwaja's sentiments for Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi can

distinctly be studied in one of his epistles. He writes,

"I came into contact with a great personality. Shaikh

Ahmad by name, who belongs to Sirhindi. He is a great
scholar. I judged his inner condition and found him like
a lamp. I hope he wilJ illuminate the whole world and
become a great religious personality of his time. He has
several brothers who are well-versed in religious
learnings. His sons are also endowed with spiritual
qualities. All of them are pious and seem to be great
saints". See Kull iyat-i-Khwaia Baqi Bj.JJ.ah, p.130
(Letter No.65) . Also, Zuhdatr.ulrMhqamat, pp.144-45.

Similarly, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also writes in a
letter to Khwaja Muhammad Ilashim Kishmi that, "When I
felt spiritual thirst, I fortunately reached the Khangah
of Khwaja Baqi Billah who taught me the lesson of Divine
Names". See Maktubat . Vol.I, Letter No.290.

Moreover, in another letter to Maulana Ilasan
Kashmiri, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi thanks the latter with
great humility and says that it was he (Hasan Kashmiri)
through whose guidance he reached the threshold of
Khwaja Baqi Billah and attained higher and higher
spiritual stages. See, Maktubat . Vol.I, Letter No.279.

124

guidance. It is reported that hardjy a month was over, the
spiritual greatness of Baqi Billah deeply influenced Ahmad
Sirhindi. The Khwaja took him in seclusion and helped in
performing the spiritual exercises. Sources say that within
no time Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was enlightened by the saint
and then turned a devout mystic. He now became Baqi Billah's
devotee and decided to join his mystic discipline.-*- The
Khwaja initiated Sirhind into the Naqshbandi silsiiah as his

1. In one of his letters to Khwaja Muhafnmad Hashim Kishmi,
the author of the Zubdat-ul-Muqamat , Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi has described his spiritual attainment in
detail. The epistle sheds interesting light on his
spiritual journey during the period he stayed with his
spiritual preceptor. It states, "when I felt spiritual
thrist, I fortunately reached the Khanqah of Khwaja Baqi
Billah, one of the eminent Khalifas of the great Naqsh
bandi saints, who taught me the leseion of Divine Name
(Is m-i-Zat-i-ȣalla .Sul tanajju) . During my spiritual
exercises, once I saw a huge river in which the world
was floating. The teachings and principles of the
Naqshbandi silsilah gradually over came. I informed the
Khwaja of my spiritual development. He always exhorted
me to meditate and concentrate in performing spiritual
exercises. Later I attained the stage of 1 Fana-i-Fana 1 .
When I again told my Khwaja, he asked to see the whole
world us one. Then these appeared a great light which
illumined the whole environment. I thought it the
appearance of God but shortly afterwards it disappeared.
When I further told the Khwaja my further development,
he enjoined me that it was Iluz opr i -i-N a cishandi , an
intermediary stage in the Naqshbandi philosophy. Later
I found the inhabitants of the world including myself as
a part of God. I also found mysoif and even al] the
particles of the world as light ( noor ). When I finalJy
informed Khwaja Baqi Billah, he told that it was the
stage of Haqq-ul-Yagin , the last stage where one
realizes the truth, i..e God. See Maktubat-i-Imam-i-
Rabbani , Vol.I, Letter No.290.

125

nm rid and in the month of Rajah, 1008/ January 1600 he
conferred his Khilafat upon him.l Having benefited from his
stay with the saint. Shaikh Ahmad returned to Sirhind and
started the preaching and propagation of the Nashbandi
ideology. It is reported that Khwaja Raqi Billah had asked
some of his disciples to accompany the shaikh to his native
place, i.e. Sirhind, in order to receive spiritual guidance
from him. the {Shaikh trained all these murids of the
Khwaja. ^ The Khwaja was so deeply influenced and highly glad
by Shaikh Ahmad's spiritual performance that on his
departure from Delhi, he wrote to some of his close
associates. "I came into contact wiht a great personality.
Shaikh Ahmad by name, who belong to Sirhind. He is a great
scholar. I judged his inner condition and found him like a
lamp. I hope he will illumine the world and be a great

religious

figure of

the time.

He has several

brothers

who

are well

versed in

religious

learning.

His sons are

also

endowed with spiritual qualities. All of

them

are pious

and

seem to

be a great

saints".3

From Sirhind,

Shaikh

Ahmad

1. See Mabda-wa-Maad . pp.141-46.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . pp.141-46.

3. Zubdat-ul-Muqamat , pp.144-45.

125

started correspondence with his spiritual mentor. He
despatched many letters to the Khwaja and described his
spiritual progress therein. It is learnt that the famous
letter in which he threw light on the various stages of his
spiritual development and which later on became the main
point of the controversy between him and the other ulama ,
Sufis and even emperor Jahangir, was also written during
these days.* Despite the problems of Islamic theogoly and
mysticism, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also reported his pir the

1. This letter occupies eleventh number in the first volume
of the Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani . In the beginning
Ahmad Sirhindi throws light on the initial stages on his
mystical journey.Then he described its second phase and
says, "Now I reached some higher stage, the stage of
Usman Zunurain, the third pious Caliph*. Other Caliph are
also authorised to live in this stage. It too is the
stage of perfection and direction; ma qam-i-takmil-o-
irshad . Later on I saw another staiion, higher to the
previous one. I was toid that it was place of the second
pious Caliph, Umar al-Faruq and there is the station of
Abu Bakr Saddiq-i-Akbar, the first pious caliph. I
visited that very place also. At yery stage I found
myself accompanied by Khwaja Muhammad Bahauddin
Naqshband. And above all there is the stage of the Holy
Prophet. Below this stage and above stage of Abu Bakr
Siddiq, there was a bright and limqnous stage which I
had not ever seen. I came to know that it was the Maoam-

i-Mahbubiyat , the stage of Divine Love. Then I found

myself like air and clouds. Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshband

resides in the stage of Siddiq~i-Akbar. "For the

controversy between Sirhindi and his opponents see
infra 1.

127

progress of his followers whom he had sent to Sirhind.^

In Ramzan 1009/February 1601, paid another visit to
Khwaja Daqi Billah in Delh and stayed there for three
months, upto Zeeqada 1009/April 1601. Npw the Khwaja held in
high esteem and paid him great honour. It is narrated that
once Shaikh Ahmad was sleeping in the room where Khwaja Baqi
Billah would sit and take rest ,and even performed his
prayers and meditations. When he (the |(hwaha) intended to
enter, the room' and open the door, he came to know that
Shaikh Ahmad was resting there. The Khwaja immediately
stopped there, standing outside the door and putting his
hands on the waist. When Shaikh Ahmad heard the sound
himting the presence of some one, he apked from inside the
room that who was outside the room. The Khwaja replied, "
yours servant Muhammad Baqi". The Shaikh immediately got up

1. Near about all the letters of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi,
which were sent to Khwaja Baqi Billah, contain the
information of the spiritual progress of his letters.
The first letter throws light on Mulla Qasim Ali's
mystical progress whereas the third letter describes the
spiritual meditation of Mir Syed Shah Husain. Khwaja
Bushan and Shaikh Ilah Bakhsh occupy their places in
letter Nos. 5 and 10 respectively. Moreover, letters
eleventh, fourteenth and eighteenth provide detailed
information of the spiritual training of Shah Husain,
Shaikh Nur, Mualana Mahmud, Miyan Jafar, Shaikh Nagauri,
Shaikh Kamal, Shaikh Isa, Miyan Shaikhi, Miyan Shaikh
Muzammil, Khwaja Ziauddin Muhammad, Mulla Qasim Ali,
Mulla Abdul Hadi,Mulla Abdur Rehman, Shaikh Nur,Abdul
Momim, Mulla Maudu Muhammad and Shaikh Abdullah Niyazi.

and canio out of the room.-* During his whole stay with the
spiritual mentor. Shaikh Ahmad continued his exercises and
meditation. He served his spiritual master and benefited
from his radience as well as his discourses. The author of
Zubdat-ul-Maqamat rightly says that Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
paid great respect and wholeheartedly devoted himself to
Khwaja Baqi Billah. Refering to Khwaja Husamuddin, also a
Khalifa of Khwaja Baqi Billah, Hashim Kishmi says that the
latter too was very much affectionate to Shaikh Ahmad and
even sometimes exeggerated in paying regards and honour to
his favourite disciple.^

It is reported that the Khwaja, later on, ordained his
new disciples .to go to Sirhindi to obtain spiritual training
from Shaikh Ahmad^ It appears that some of them once made
excuse for not doing so. The Khwaja angrily told them that
if they wanted their faith to be secured, they must go to
him. The Khwaja further totla that Shaikh Ahmad was like the
sun, and the person like him (the Khwaja) had no importance
before him.3

1. Zubdat-ul-Mugamat , pp.153-54.

2. Ibid., pp.148-49.

3. Rauzat-ul-Oaivvumiva (Urdu) Part I, p.107.

129

In the same year, most probably the first half of
1010/1601 Shaikh Ahmad was confarred upon with the Khilafat
in the Oadiriva silsilah by Shah Sikandar Qadiri, the grand¬
son and spiritual successor of Shaikh {Carnal Qadiri. It is
reported that once Ahmad Sirhind was siting in his mosque in
meditation, Shaikh Sikandar Qadiri arrived and presented his
grand-father's Khirga , the spiritual-rpligious garment, to
him.l Many supernatural event are said V-o have occured when
Ahmad Sirhindi wor^ this garment. The spirit of Shaikh Abdul
Qadir Jilani^ with that of Ali bin Ab| Talib, the fourth

1. Almost a31 the sources reveal that Shaikh Kamal had
willed to give his khirg a to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
Later on, he also spiritually instructed Shah Sikandar
in a vision to do so. See Zubdat-ul-Maqamat , p.134.

2. He holds supreme position among thp saint of Islam. A
descendant of the Holy Prophet, through his grand-sons,
Hasan and Husain, Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani is called
Hasanul-Husaini, on account of his descent, on his
mother's side from Hasan. The £haikh was born in
470/1077 or 471/1078 at Gilan or Jilan, townm south of
the Capsian sea. At the age of eighteen he went to
Baghdad and joined the world fame insitution, Mad ar sa-i-
Nizamiva ♦ Consequently he started his career as alim and
attracted a large crowned towards him. Later on, lie
turned to the mystic pursuits and spent a long time in
spiritual exercises and meditation at different places
and sender different spiritual masters.' People attended
his discourses in large number and benefited from him.

He is the founder of the Qadi jriya silsilah. It is
alleged among the sufis of Islam that the fort of Shaikh
Abdul Qadir Jilani rests on the necks of all Muslim
saints. The Shaikh died on 11th Rgbi-us-Sani 561/14th
February 1366 in Baghdad where his tomb is still a great
centre of Sufism and thousands of people visit it every
year.For his details see, Akhbar-ul«-Akhyar , pp.13-26.

13a

Pious Caliph, and also the spirit of Khwaha Muhammad
Bahauddin Maqshband^- with that of Abu |3akr Siddiq, the first
Pious Caliph, alongwith the spiritis of all the departed
saint of their respective si 3 si Jabs, appeared to him. Each
of them claimed Ahmad Sithindi to be fhe representative of
his own mystic order. While the contention was continued,
the spirits of the founders o the Chis|iti and the Suharwardi
silsilahs, accompanied by the souls of the departed saints
of their sufi orders, also appeared to Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi. They also argued that the Shaikh should represent
their silsilahs. The dispute continued from morning till
noon. At last the Holy Prophet of Islam appeared there and
all of them made appeal to him to decide the matter. The
Prophet of Islam told them, " Let there be United in Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi the spiritual power ol! all the religious

1. Born in 718/1318 at Qasr-i-Arifin near Bukhara in
Central Asia, he was founder of the Naqshbandi silsilah.
Since his early boyhood he was keenly devoted to the
spiritual practices and meditation. Later he became a
disciple of Amir Kulal (ob. 772/15f>4) . He also benefited
from the spirit of Khwaja Abdul Khaliq Ghajdwani.
Bahauddin followed the Shari at and the Hana fite school.
He left a deep impact upon the people of Transoxiana and
Central Asia. A large multitude of people, ulama ,
sufis, scholars and the ruling class joined his mystic
discipline. He died on Monday, tjie 3rd Rabi-ul-Awwal
791/2nd March 1389 and was buried in Bukhara. For his
details see, Abdur Rahman Jami, Nalahat-ul-Uns , Calcutta
1968, pp.439-53;’ Also, Hazarat-ul- Quds , Vol.I, (Urdu)
Lahore 3922, £*p. 123-159; Also Safinat-ul-Auliya , p.78.

131

orders of upereme authority in your silsilahs. But the
Naqshbandi silsilah should take the precedence and be
preferred with him as it is related and traced to my friend
Abu Bakr, and because it is in keeping with the laws of
Islafu, i.e. Shariat . He (Shaikh Ahmad) is to be great former
of my religion."1 Though in the beginning Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi initiated disciples in ail the mystic orders but
subsequently he confined the practice to the Naqshbandi and
the Qadiri Silsilahs. It is said that during the last
fifteen years of his life he taught his disciples only in
the Naqshbandi way.

Meanwhile, Miran Sadr-i-Jahan and Khan-i-Azam Mirza
Aziz Koka got themselves initiatecj into the mystic
discipline of Ahmad Sirhindi. they seem to have been
recommended to the shaikh by Khwaja Baqi Billah.2 The latter
also sant Mir Swaleh Nishapuri to Shaikh Ahmad in order to
receive spiritual training from him.^

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.135.

2. See Hul l ivat - i-B a q i Biilajb, Lahore, p.87 (the letter of
the saint, No.17) .

Also Rauzat-ul-Qaiyyumiva (Urdu), p.lll.

2. Kullivat , p.140, Letter No.83.

Zubdat-ul-Muqamat . p.154.

Rauzat-ul-Oaivyumia , p.lll.

132

Sirhindi visited his spiritual prepeptor third time in
the beginning o 1012/1603 when the Khwaja was seriously ill.
Though he was around forty but due to his continous prayers
and penitences he looked .like a man of eighty years old an
spiritual exercises and vigils had gpeatly impaired his
health. Khwaja Baqi Billah, however, accorded a warm welcome
to his favourite Khalifa . It is reported that he moved for
feq miles and went to the Kabuli Darwaza, the entrance of
the town, in order to receive Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. It is
also reported that the Khwaja, on this occasion, entertained
Shaikh ahmad with great honour and sought his blessings and
favours for himself, his infant sons and both the wives.^ He
enjoined his every disciple to stricly follow and associate
himself with the Shaikh. lie went to the etent of saying that
there had been very few persons in the Muslim Community
( Umroat-i-Muslima ) like Shaikh ahmad Sirhindi after the
companions of the Holy Prophet ( Ashab-i~Rasul )The Khwaja
now appointed Sirhindi as his chief follower ( Khal ifa) and
spritual successor, when some of his senior disciples made
an objection on this rapid spiritual progress of, and the

1. Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani , Vol.I, Better No.264.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat # p.155.

\

133

Khwaja's special attention, and the most hospitable attitude
towards Shaikh Ahmad Sirhind, who was supposed a new comer
by them, he (the Khwaja) told Mir Muhammad Nu'man, the most
respected by him among them and also a senior disciple, that
the Shaikh was like the sun and thousand^ of the stars like
him (the Khwaja) were moving around and benefiting from him.
He further told that among all the Muslim saints there had
not been as great saint as Shaikh Ahad S^rhindi and neither
there would emerge any one like him in the future.^ The
Khwaja is also reported to have ultered that it was Shaikh
Ahmad, through whose spiritual excellences, he (the Khwaja)
entered the spiritual stages ( muaamat ), he had not even seen
earlier. Khwaja Baqi Billah also told that due to Shaikh
Ahmad's special spiritual attention towards him led him (the
Khwaja) to the broad way of Shariat from the narrow lane of
the Tauhid-i-Wuiudi .2

Later on, Ahmad Sirhindi, with the permission of his
spiritual directors, left for Sirhind where he spent few
days with liis family members and then he proceeded to

1. Kauzat-ul-Qaiyyumiva .I^p. 112.

2. Maktubat , Vol.I, Letter No.43.

Also Khwaja Kalan, Mubliah-ur-Rij al. (MS), A.M.U.,

f.34b. ' • *

134

Lahore. There he met a number of Ulama . sufi and scholars
etc. A large gathering of the local Muslim inhabitants is
reported to have been benefited from and enlisted in the
mistic discipline of Shaikh Ahmad. He blessed all of them
whether rich or poor, illitterate or scholar, and sufi or
alim . In Lahore, Shaikh Ahmad came into contact with eminent
religious scholar Maulana Jamal Talwi who held him in high
esteem and entertained with greet sincerity. The Shaikh
toopaid due respect to the Maulana. It is said that once he
asked the Shaikh's opinion about the concept of Wahdat-ul-
Wuiud which he thought to be against to Shariat ♦ The told
something in the Maulana's ears and the latter, having tears
in his eyes, departed from there. The author of Zubdat-ul-
Maaamat beautifully writes that nobody knows what the Shaikh
told Maulana Talwi.^ Maulana Tahir who was known as a
famous alim of the town also joined the spiritual circle of
the Shaikh. Moreover Khwaja Farrukh Husain of Ma'wara-un-
Nahr (Transoxium) and Mir Syed Nasir Ahmad Ahmad of Rum are
also reported to taave become the discipje ( murid ) of Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi. The former was staying at Lahore in these

1. Zubdat-ul-Muqamat , p.157.

N.B. Nothing <js known about Maulana Jamal Talwi in any

Maqshbandi or other source.

135

days. When he heard the name and fame of the Shaikh, he came
to him and accepted him as his spiritual preceptor. Mir
Nosir came toLahoro from Madina. It in said that tie had
spiritual been told to" cjotoSi rtiind by the Holy Prophet when
he was, on one occasion, near the (Prophet's) tomb.-*

The Shaikh was still in Lahore that his spiritual
preceptor Khwaja Muhammad Paqi Pi 31 ah died in Delhi on 2r»lh
Jamadi-us-Thani, 1012/20th November 1603. 1 2 3 The sad demise
of the saint greatly shocked and caused deep grief to Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi and he immediately left for Delhi to attend
the funeral ceremony.3 as he reached there some late, he
visited his master's grave and mourned his death with his
sons, wife and khalifas and disciples. All of them sought
his spiritual'blessings and requested him to lead and direct
their matters in accordance with the Khwaja's precepts. The
Shaikh is also reported to have remove gome different among

1. See Rauzat-ul-OaiYyumiva (Urdu), p.JlS,

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.32.

3. In his way to Delhi, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi made a short
sojourn at Sirhind where Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and
Nawab Murtuza Khan called on jiini. They obtained
spiritual blessings from him as, it is said, the Khwaja
had advised them to do so. See Rauzat-ul-Qaiyyumiya
(Urdu), p. 119. - > >o -

13S

themselves. All the followers of Khwaja Baqi Billah
accepted him as their supereme head and the Khwaja's chief
successor. It appears that some of them also objected
Ahmad Sirhindi's succession and refused to accept him as the
head of the Naqshbandi order in India. But their disputes
and opposition could not exist for long time and very soon
they submitted, realized Ahmad Sirhindi's significance and
accepted him as their religious leader.-* In the mean time,
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindj wrote a commentary on the Khwaja's
work Sharh-i-Ru ba iyat . 1 2 Subsequently he returned to Sirhind

and busily engaged

himself

in

academic activities

and

spiritual exercises.

It was

his

usual practice

that

he

visited Delhi every

year in

the

month of Jama II

to

take

part in the Urs of Khwaja Baqi Billah. Sometimes the went to
AGra as well and one occasion he visited Allahabad.3
Simultaneously, he made contacts with the eminent nobles of
the Mughal empire and started correspondence with the
important political and religious figures of the time

1. Zubdat-ul-Muga mat, pp.158-60.

2. Maktubat, Vol.I, Letters 246, 291.
3* Zubdat-ul-Mugarnat , pp. 159-60.

137

especially Shaikh Farid Bukhari, the great Mughal nobles of
the time.l

1. In the beginning he sent letters to Khwaja Muhammad Baqi
Billah, his spiritual mentor, and informed him of his
spiritual achievements. Near about twenty letters were
sent to the saint,till his last moment. Afterwards, he
dispatched letters to other important personalities viz.
Shaikh Muhamifod Makki (Letter No.21, in Vol.I, of the
Maktubat ), Shaikh Abdul Majeed (22), Abdur Rahim Khan-i-
Khanan (23), Muhammad Qulich Khan (24), Khwaja Jahan
(25), Haji Muhammad Lahori (26,33,34,35,36), Khwaja Amak
(27,28), Shaikh Nizam Thanesari (29,30), Shaikh Sufi
(31), Khwaja Husamuddin (32), Shaikh Muhammad Khairi
(37,38,39,40), Shaikh Darwesh (41,42) and Shaikh Farid
Bukhari (43,44,45,46).

CHAPTER-IV

AS ORGANIZER OP THE NAQSHBANDI SILSILAH IN INDIA

\

1 38

CHAPTER IV

AS ORGANIZER OP THE NAQSHBANDI SILSILAH IN INDIA

'Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi organised the Naqshbandi silsilah
ih India in a very systematic manner. He deputed his
followers ( khalifas ) in the important cities and towns in
the sub-continent. These representatives of the Shaikh
worked zealously for the development of the Naqshbandi order
and attracted a large multitude to their master's mission.
If on one hand they fulfilled the spiritual expectations and
religious urges of the masses, on the other, they also came
to wield a considerable, and generally sobering influence on
the ruling elite which helped them in the organisation of
their mystic order. The nature of their deeds impressed the
people around him considerably. As they enjoyed respect and
reverence from all sections of the Muslim society, thousands
of people joined the Naqshbandi silsilah and came into
contact with Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. Thopgh the latter also
sent his khalifas abroad, an analysis of his religious and
mystic activities in Indian sub-continent is presented here.

t

BURHANPUR: Among the khalifas of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Mir

Muhammad Nu'man deserves special mention (being the senior
most) Sirhindi appointed him as his representative at

133

Burhanpur, 1 which was a famous town of the Deccan and had
been an important centre of sufis and sufism since its very
foundation. A number of sufis of different silsilahs had
been fluorished there and attracted thousands of people to
their mystic folds.2 Born in 977 A.H./1569 A.D. in

1. A town in the present Madhya Pradesh state and situated
in 21° 18' N and 76° 14E on the Incjian Railway. It may
be stated here that Burhanpur was built by Nasir Khan
Faruqi, the rular of Khandesh, in 1400 A.D. in the
memory of Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib, a Khalifa of Shaikh
Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi. It is related that Nasir
Khan Faruqi and his father Malik Raja Faruqi were the
disciples, of Shaikh Zainuddin, the spirituall successor
of Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib. See, Muhammad Qasim Hindu
Shah Farishta, Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi ( Tarikh-i-Farishta ),
Lucknow 1322 A.H., p. 279/ Munshi Thakur Lai, Dasturul
Amal-i-Shahanshahi . (MS. in British Museum/ Rotograph in
the Research Library, Department of History, A.M.U.,
Aligarh) ff. 43-44/ Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgirami,
Rauzat-ul-Auliva . Hyderabad 1310, p.33

2. It is said that Shaikh Burhanuddin's spiritual
descendants played important part in making Burhanpur a
prominent Chishti centre. They worked Zealously to
extend their influence in the town and attracted
thousands of people to their mystic fold. Even the
rulers of Khandesh felt deeply attracted towards them. A
large number of Chishti Khanqahs existed there.

Shaikh Azizullah Mutawakkil (ob. 912/150-7) , is
reported to be the first eminent saint of the Chishti
order in Burhanpur. He was the spiritual descendant of
Shaikh Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar. Shaikh Azizullah left a
deep impact upon the inhabitants of the town and
enlisted a large number of people into his mystic Shaikh
Abdul Haq Muhaddith, Akhbar-ul-Akhy ar , Delhi 132, pp.
278-79/ Ghauthi Shatari, Gulzar-i-Abrar/ Mirza Muhammad
Hasa, Mirat-i-Ahmadi/ K.A. Nizami, Tarikh-i-Mashaikh-i-
Chisht, Vol. I, Delhi 1979, pp. 222, 266,/ Also "Sufi-
Movement in the Deccan", published in the History of
Medieval Deccan , (ed. by) H.K. Shairwani, Hyderabad
1974, pp. 176-99.

For the details of the sufis of different silsilah
see. Professor Nizami's article Sufi-Movement in the
Deccan in Sherwani oo.cit.

Samarqand , 1 Mir Muhammad Nu'man had been keenly interest in
Tasawwuf since his very boyhood. He joined the company of
saintly people and spent his time in meditation and offering
prayers. In 1008 A.H./1600 A.D. he came to Delhi and joined
the mystic discipline of Khwaja Baqi Billah. The mentor's
love and affection so deeply influenced Muhammad Nu'man that
he decided to permanently stay with him and determined to
lead a life of renunciation. On Baqi Billah's death in 1012
A.H./1603 A.D., Muhammad Nu'man came under the direct
spiritual guidance of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhini who took to him

1. Muhammad Nu'man originally belonged to Kishm, a famous
town in Afghanistan. His father Mir Shamsuddin Yahya,
popularly known as Mir Buzurg (ob.944 A.H./1586 A.D.)

and came from a distinguished Saiyid family of saintly
scholars, was a famous alim and sufi of his time. Mirza
Muhammad Hakim, the ruler of Kabul, is reported to have
held Mir Yahya in high esteem. He entertained him at his
royal court also. It is said that when Mirza Hakim died
in 993/1585 and Emperor Akbar appointed Raja Man Singh
as his new governor of Kabul, Mir Buzurg could not
tolerate a non-Muslim ruler in his country and prayed
for his own death. Accordingly he died in 994/ 1586 and
was buried in Kabul. See Dadruddin Sirhindi,

Hazarat-ul.-Ouds . Vol. II, Lahore, 1971, p. 299

But the author of 7.ubd at-ul^Mocjamqt, Khwaja Muhammad
Ilashim Kishmi reports that Mir Buzurg was buried in
Kishmi which seems correct as he himself belonged to the
same town. See, Zubdat-ul-Maqamat # p. 327.

to sirhind and looked after his family for about six years. 1

In 1018 A.H./ 1609 A.D., after confering his Khilafat
upon him, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi deputed Mir Muhammad Nu'man
to Burhanpur in order to propagate the Naqshbandi ideology.
The Mir faced many of difficulties in the beginning of his
religious mission*}; It appears that the presence of Shaikh
Isa Jundullah^ and Shaikh Muhammad bin Fazlullah,^ who had
enjoyed great fame and popularity in Burhanpur and the
surrounding areas for several years, caused great
difficulties and proved hindrance in the way of Muhammad

r

Nu'man. They seem to have jointly opposed his arrival and

1. Hashim Kishmi, op.cit♦ . pp.328-31 / Badruddin Sirhindi,
op.cit. . pp. 300-2.

2. He was disciple and Khalifa of Shaikh Arif, a follower
of Saiyyid Muhammad Ghauth of Gwalior. It is related
that he had a thorough comman over the works of
Muhiyyuddin Ibn-i-Arabi and wrote a number of treatises
explaining the theory of ’Wahdat-ul-Wujud. He is also
reported to have written a commentary on the Quran. He
died in 1031 / 1621-22. For details, Gulzar-i-Abrar . f.
206b/ Moza,o. Sufi Movement in the Deccan .

3. A famous saint and scholar of Durhanpur who held

important position among the people. Born in 952/ 1545-

46 in Gujrat, the studied under eminent Ulama and schol¬
ars of his time, both in India and in Mecca and Madian.
It is said that Miran Muhammad II, the ruler of Khan-
desh, paid great respect to him and he had invited him
to stay in Burhanpur. Shaikh Muhammad was a strict
adherent to Shariat ♦ He produced number of treatises and
brochures which cover a vide range of Islamic theology
and Sufism. The Shaikh died on 2nd Ramazan 1029/ 1st
August 1620. For a detailed study s^e Saiyyid Imamuddin,
Barakat-ul-Auliva . (Urdu), Delhi 1322, pp. 95-97.

activities in the town by considering him their spiritual
rival. Though the evidence in this connection is lacking, it
is probable that they were opposed to the Naqshbandi
silsilah as it was represented by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhjndj
whose spiritual ideology might not have been accepted to
thorn. After all, Muhammad Mu'man war: so much disgusted with
local environment that he had to leave for Sirhind on two
occasions. Every time he apprised Shaikh Ahmad of the
situation in Burhanpur and even requested him for not
sending him back to there. Nevertheless, Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi, emphasizing the importance of Burhanpur, strongly
asked Muhammad Nu'man to return and revive his missionary
activities. He also exhorted the Mir to work with patience
and courage in a calm and quiet manner. Moreover, Shaikh
Ahmad extended blessing to him and wished a great success in
near future.-^ ^

Accordingly, Mir Muhammad Nu'man reached Burhanpur once
again, established his Khanqah and devoted himself to the
spread of the Naqshbandi silsilah in that region. He
frequently communicated his problem^ to Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi and sought his advice in every important matter.
The Shaikh too, paid great attention to Muhammad Nu'man's

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat , p. 331

work. They both continued correspondence with each other.
There are several letters to this effect in the Maktubat-j-
Imam-i-Rabbani . In fact, these letters provided moral
support as well as spiritual inspiration to Mir Muhammad
Mu'man and even created confidence in him. Once he informed
Shaikh Ahmad that some of his opponents were causing him
trouble. Sirhindi did not react upon this. However, he
exhorted him to continue his work and not to retaliate
against them.-*- Hence, Mir Muhammad Nu'man, despite the lack
of local support, carried on his missionary activities and
gradually began to succeed in his aim, People started to
come to him and ultimately his fame spread far and wide. The
author of Mirat-i-Jahan Numa informs t.hcjt a large multitude
of people benefited from his spiritual radiance. It is
reported that no sooner they saw Muhammad Mu'man, than they
slit their garments in a state of spiritual ecstasy.2 His
compassion radiating personality became the symbol of
attraction for the other saints. Many of them are also said
to have joined his mystic fold.According to Zubdat-ul -
Maqamat and Hazarat-ul-Oud Nu'man started the process of

1. Maktubat-i-Imam-i -Rabbani. Vol.I, letter No. 119.

2. Muhammad Baqa, Mirat-i-Jahan Numa (MS. in British
Museum/ Rotograph in the Research Library, Department of
history, A.M.U.),*f. 112 a

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi

social association and assimilation.-^
is reported to have been glad to learn the popularity of bis
senior follower in Burbanpur. lie expected his Kh alifa to
cover and illumine the whole region of Deccan. 1 2 3 4

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi aM ached gioat impoilance to
Burhanpur and wanted it to be made an important centre of
the Naqshbandi silsilah. When, on one occasion, Mir Muhammad
Nu'man wrote to him that some of his new m urids wanted to
seek training in the Qadiriya silsilab, the Shaikh strongly
disapproved it and insisted on giving them the teachings of
the Naqshbandi order only. 3 Moreover, when he (Shaikh Ahmad)
invited Muhammad Nu'man to visit Sirhind, he advised him to
come alone and not to leave his seat vacant in Burhanpur so
that the missionary work could not be disturbed due to his
absence in the town.4 The Shaikh was sg confident of Mir
that he could not tolerate him to be disgraced and insulted.
Once he was wrongly reported by some persons from Bushanpur
that Mir - was not paying any attention to his disciple, and

1. Zu bdat-ul-Maqamat # p.332.
Hazarat-ul-Qud s. p.303.

2. Maktubat, Vol. I, letter Mo. 246

3. Maktubat .-Vol. I,.letters No.119, 23b.

4. Ibid, letters $Jo. 257

busily engaged in the construction of his house arid
spending Futuh (unasked for Charity) for his own purpose.
But the Shaikh Vehemently criticised those who leveled the
charges and made complain against Mir. He also warned them
for. not obeying and paying attention to their spiritual
master. He praised Muhammad Nu'man for his bright character
and unbound success in Burhanpur and highlighted his
spiritual excellences.

Sirhindi's letters to Mir Muhammad Nu'man provide
interesting information of Islamic theology and mysticism.
In one of his maktubat he says, "The way which leads to the
excellances ( Kamalat ) of the Prophepy ( Nabuwwat ), is
associates with the Nawshbandi silsilah. That is why the

deeds of the Naoshbandi sainsts are in line with the

I

Companions of the Holy Prophet."1 Sirhindi attached no

importance to mi_racles ( Karamat ) . once he wrote to Mir

V

Muhammad Nu'man that he should not much concentrate on
performing the miracles as it was not the condition for
spiritual development and all the great sufis, except few,
laid no stress on this aspect.2 He always enjoined the Mir
to strictly follow and preach the Shari at. even among the

1. Maktubat, Vol.I, letter No. 313
2• Ma ktub a t-ul-Maqamat , p.277.

ruling class. Once the Shaikh wrote to him, "The duty oJ a
Muslim Emperor is to enforce Sha riat in his dominion. The
carelessness of a single moment in this great task causes
harm to both Islam and the Muslims."1

Mir Muhammad Nu'man was also on friendly terms with
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. According to Zu bdat-ul-Maqamat ,
Khan-i-Khanan visited him in Burhanpur during his viceroyal¬
ty of the Deccan. It is related when Jahangir dissmised him
from the governership of Deccan and became hostile towards
him, the Khan-i-Khanan sought Muhammad Nu'man's spiritual
blessings.2 it appears from the Makt pbat -i-Imam-i-Rab b an i
that he helped the Mir and took interest in his religious
activities. In a letter to Abdur Rahim, Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi writes, "The presence of Mir Muhammad Nu'man in
that region is most important. I regard his blessings and
spiritual attention towards you as invaluable. They are the
source of your stability and promotion. More than a year ago
he wrote me of your virtues and your attention to the
Nawshbindi saints. He also involved my help to block your
transfer from the Deccan. I directed my spiritual attention

1. Ibid

2. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p. 277.

towards you and found that you were destined to make
progress.

The fame and popularity of Mir Muhammad Nu'man could
not be to3crated by his opponents. They poisoned the ears of
the Mughal emperor against him. They toJd Jahangir that the
Mir's activities in Burhanpur could lead to politico]
disturbances in the Mughal Empire as more than one lakh
Uzbeks had been enlisted in his mystic discipline. 1 2
According to. Hazara t-ul -Ouds . the Emperor called him to the
Royal Court and <psked to give explanations of the charges
against him. The Emperor is said to have appointed Mahabat
Khan to look into the matter and make an inquiry. But on the
his satisfactory remakrs, Jahangir set him free on the
conditions that he would not return to Burhanpur. In

1. Ma ktubat , Volume II, letter No. G2

2. In this connection the statement of Saiyid Athar Abbas
Rizvi is misleading. He says, "Although Akbar and
Jahangir would never have been so rash as to despatch
such a large military force composed of a single racial
group to one out post, it is probable that some newly
arived Uzbeks soldiers did becopie disciples of Mir
Muhammd Nu'man". (See, A History of Sufism in India,
Volume II, Delhi, 1983, p.224). It may be noted here
that Mir Muhammad Nu'man or his supporters never claimed
such a large number of military or civilian Uzbeks to
have been initiated into his mystic discipline. The
Hazarat-ul-Quds clearly reveals that the rivals of the
Mir fabricated this false accusation and incited the
Mughal Emperor Jahangir, (See, p. 272).

compliance with the Emperor's order Mir Muhammad Mu'man had
to permanently reside at Agra where he died on 18th Solar
1058 A.H./ 5tb March 1648 A.D. 1 2 3 4

On passing away of Mir Muhammad Nu'man, his disciple
and son-in-law Khwaja Muhammad Ilashim Kishmi. maintained his
traditions during the subsequent period and made
determined efforts for the development of the Naqshbandi
silsilah in Burhanpur.

Though his ancestors owed spiirtual allegiance to the
Kubrawi silsilah and in his boyhood ho himself had come
into contact with Kubrawi saints but later he felt attracted
towards and decided to join the Naqshbandi silsilah.2

It was in his youth that hashim left for India and
spent a period of one year in journeying through various
places. Finally he came to Burhanpur in 102.8 A.H./1619 A.D.
and met Mir Muhammad Nu'man who accorded a warm, welcome to
him.^ Later on, Hashim Kishmi joined Muhammad Nu'mans mystic
dirupline and subsequently married his daughter as well.^

1. Hazarat-ul-Quds , p. 273

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaaroat , p.1

3. Ibid, p. 326

4. Zawwar Husain, Hazrat-i-Muiaddid-i - Alf-i-Thani Karachi
1975, p. 789.

Meanwhile Muhammad Nu'man was introduced Ilashim through
correspondence, to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and then asked him
to visit Sirhind with the intention of meeting and
benefiting from the saint himself. It is reported that
Mir 1 sintroductory remakrs so deeply attracted Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhini towards Khwaja Hashim Kishmi ti>at he himself had
invited the latter to Sirhind.^

Therefore, Kishmi reached Sirhind and stayed there for

%

about two years in the company of Shaikh Ahmad who trained
him very strictly and attentively on the mystic path. Kishmi
alsoworked as Sirhindi's personal assistant. During this
period Hashim Kishmi frequently serviced and benefited from
Shaikh Ahmad's spiritual assemblies. He also accompanied
the Shaikh to different places during his journeys the royal
army.2 when Sirhindi was in Ajmer, Hashmi Kishmi was present
there.3

Later on. Shaikh Ahmad initiated Khwaja Hashim into his
own mystic fold and conferred the Khilafat upon him. It is
reported that sirhindi, seven months before his death, sent

1. Maktubat, Vol. II, letter no.l

2. Zubdat-ul-Maoamat , p. 3
Hazarat-ul-Ouds , p. 369

3. Zubtal-ul-Maoamat , p. 282
Maktubat . Volume III, letter No. 106

no

Muhammad Hashim back to Burhanpur for looking after his
family and propagating the Naqshbandi silsilah there.^ As a
Naqshbandi sufi, he too acquired great; fame and populairty
in that town. His achievements earned his respect and
adminisration. People joined him in large number and,
according to Hazarat-ul-Quds . many high officials and
nobles attended his spiritual assemblies.2 He also
corresponded with Shaikh Ahmad and received instructions
from him for his missionary activities.3 The
Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani contains many letters to Khwaja
Hashim which throw light on the relationship between him
and the Shaikh.4 Hashim visited sirhiqd second time on his
pir's demise in 1034 A.H./ 1624 A.D. and remained there for
some time in the company of Shaikh Ahmad's sons and other
Khalifas.5 Afterwards he returned to Burhanpur where he

1. Hazarat-ul-Quds . p. 370
Maktubat, Vol. Ill, letter No. 106

2. Hazarat-ul-Quds . p. 370

3. Maktubflt f Vol. Ill, letter No. 42

4. See Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani .

Vol. I, letters No. 310, 313

Vol. II, letters No. 65, 74, 93, 97

Vol. Ill, letters No. 42, 53, 69, 75, 90, 92, 96

5. Zubdat-ul-Quds . p. 285

lived rest of his life. Kishmi died in 1054 A.H./1644 A.D.
and was buried on the bank of river Tapti.l

Very little is known of Khwaja hashim's mystic and.
religious organisation in the Burhanpur. However, his main
contribution to the development of the Naqshbandi silsilah
in Burnhanpur lies in producing his famous works Zubdat-ul-
Maaamat ^ and Nusmat-ul-Quds .3 The former occupies a
significant place in the sufi literature produced in
medieval India. It is considered a maqnum opus of the
Naqshbandi Mujaddidi saints. These wqrks reflect Hashim

1. Hazarat-ul-Quds , p. 383
Zawwar Husain, op.cit. p. 793

Abdul Haiy, Nuzhat-ul-Khawatir . Vol.5, Hyderabad 1976,
p. 406.

It may be mentioned here that Muhammad Aslam gives
Khwaja Hashim's year of demise as 1045/1635 which is
wrong. His study is based on the tablet ( kataba ) fixed
on Kishmi's grave in Burhanpur. (Soe, Tarikhi Maoalat ,
Delhi, 1970, p. 163).

In this connection Zawwar Husain criticises Aslam's
view (see Hazrat-i-Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani . p. 793).

Moreover, sprenger has written that Khwaja Muhammad
Hashim Kishmi was alive in 1056/1646, (See, the printed
Catalogue of the Roval Asiatic Soqietv , p. 420). But
spranger's view also seems incorrect.

2. Published from, Matba-i-Mahmmad . Luoknow, 1885 and Nawal
Kishore, Kanpur, 1890.

3. The manuscript of this work belongs to the Laningrad
University Library (U.S.S.R.) (See C.A. storey, Persian
Literature . London 1972, p. 990).

Kishmi'c scholarship and his knowledge of the religious
literature. He also compiled the third volume of the
Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani .*

Though some other Khalifas of Shaiklj Ahmad Sirhindi are
also reported to have visited Burhnapur but no Naqshbandi

1. Hazarat-ul-Ouds . p. 370.

In this connection also see the preface of the third
volume of the Maktubat . It may be also be mentioned
here that Khwaja Hashim was a poet also. Almost all the
contemporary and later Naqshbandi sources refer to his
poetic compositions. Hazarat-ul-Quds . p.377/ Nuzhat-ul-
Khawatic Vol. 5, p. 406 / Thomas William Beall, An
oriented Biographical Dictionary . Dplhi 1971, p. 158.
Moreover Hashim himself has given two of his poems at
the end of Zubdat-ul-Magamat . See p. 399.

N.B.: The collection of his poetip verses known as
Diwan-i-Hashim seems to have been completed in his life
time, (see, William Beale, op. cit. / C.A. storey, p.
988 / Nuzhat-ul-Khuwatis . Vol. 5, p. 406). It is the
complete typical work of Khwaja Hashim. The manuscripts
of the Diwan belongs to ;

(1) India office library, (see, Eathe, Catalogue of the
Persian MSS in India office library , p. 1570, No. 2698

(2) Asiatic Society of Bengal, (See Catalogue, of the
Persian MSS in A.S.B. Calcutta, 1924, p. 338, No. 747)

(3) Government oriental manuscript library, Madras,
(see. Catalogue of the Arabic and Persian manuscripts in
but orient library. Madras. Madraq . 1961 . pp. 30-31,
S.No. 221, Book No. D-64).

(4) The kutub khana-i-Asafiya also owns a manuscripts
of Diwan-i-Hashim . (See, list of Arabic, Persian and
Urdu books . Kutub Khana-i-Asafiva . Vol. I, P. 736, Book
No. 437).

(5) Maulana Azad Library, A.M.U., Aligarh. (See, Muham¬
mad Aslam, Tarikhi Maaalat , p. 168),

153

chronicle has recorded their role and contribution to the
expansion of the Naqshbandi silsilah there. It appears they
could not stay their permanently .1 The other outstanding
sufi who played important part in dessimination of the
Naqshbandi silsilah in Burhanpur was shaikh Abul Muzaffar
Sufi Burhanpuri who was a Khalifa of Khwaja Muhammad Ma'sum,
the son and successor of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. He
belonged to a noble family of the Deccan but later he turned
to sufi life and zealously worked for the development of the
silsilah and its practices os well as thought. His pcity and
scholarhip had a tremendous impact upon the inhabitants of
the town. Thousands of people are said to have joined his
mystic disapline. He died in 1108/1696 in Burhanpur.^

Agra ,

The next important place which attracted Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhinid's attention was Agra, the capital of the Mughal
empire. Many important personalities of different circles of
life resided there. The Shaikh himself had been over there
for several years in his youth. His years long stay at and

1. Hazarat-ul-Ouds , pp. 333, 349

2. For his details see, Barkat-ul-Auliva , p. 138.
Nuzhat-ul-Khawatir, Vol. 6, Hyderabad 1978, p.18.
Muhammad Abdul Jabbar Khan, Tarikh-i-Auliva-i-Deccan .
Vol. I, p. 149.

association with ulama , nobles and sufig in the capital had

made him fully acquinted the social, political and religious

condition of the city. Though, after the accession of

Jahangir the atmosphere, to some extent, had changed yet

Shaikh Ahmad attached due importance tothe capital of the

empire. In comparison with the civilian people, Sirhindi

selected the Mughal army for his religious and mystic

propagation. It was Shaikh Badi'uddin of Saharanpur whom

Sirhindi deputed to this task. Came from a respectable

family of Saharnpur, now in wastern Utt$r Pradesh, shaikh

Badiuddin had been a student of Shaik)i Ahmad Sirhindi. ^

Later he had joined the mystic fold pf the Shaith and

devoted himself to meditation and prayers. After some time

*

Shaikh Ahmad conferred his Khilafat on h|m and asked him to
go to Saharnpur in order to propagat the Naqshbandi silsilah
and initiate his own disciples. But soon Shaikh Ahmad
transferred Badiuddin to Agra as his Khalifa to spread his
teachings in the Mughal army.^ Sirhindi strictly asked
Shaikh Badiuddin to be determined and not to leave the
Mughal capital without his permission. The author of
Zubdat-ulaqamat says that Badiuddin attracted a large number
of people and earned great fame.he got tremendous success in

1. Zubdat-ul-Muaamat . p. 346

2. Ibid, p. 347

155

inculcating a deep scnDC of peity among both the
influential, and fellow mystics alike. 1 2 3 4 5 But, contrary to the
will of Shaikh Ahmad, Badiuddin left Agra for Saharanpur due
to some personal matter. Though he later on went to Sirhind
to apprise Shaikh Ahmad of his departure from Agra but the
Shaikh expressed annoyance at his disciple's violation of
his orders.^ On Sirhindi's displeasure Badiuddin promised to
return to Agra and perform his duties. But this time Shaikh
Ahmad asked him to go to Agra on his own risk. However,
Badiuddin reached Agra. 1 Khwaja Muhammad Hashim Kashmi says
that in Agra many soldiers of the Mughal army came to him
and Badiuddin exhorted them to strictly follow the Shariat
and told them of his own spiritual excel,ence as well as
meditation.4 it appears that Badiuddin discussed many
controversial topics of Tasawwuf with tl^ese. He got success
in the beginning of his mission and many persons approached
him for spiritual exercises and the teachings of the
Naqshband) Silsilah. 1 But at the same time-it also appears

1. Zubdat-ul-Muaamat . p. 348

2. Ibid, p. 348

3. Ibid

4. Ibid

5. Z.M. , p. 350

156

that some mischievous persons became his enemy on account of
his growing popularity. In one of his letters to Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi Badiuddin says that they often came and
give troube to him and even abuse Khwaja Bahauddin
Naqshbandi and Khwaja Baqi Billah.^ Despite these
circumstances Shaikh Badiuddin continued his work and
attracted people towards him. lie discussed countroversial
problems of Sufffem with the persons who had no faith in
mystic revelation and inspiration. It provided an
opportunity to make propaganda against him and his
spiritual mentor. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhini. Consequently
Jahangir summoned Shaikh Ahmad to Agra and, after inquiring
about his mystical thought, got him imprisoned in the
Gwalior fort.2 shaikh Badiuddin afterwards shifted to his

home-town Saharanpur and lived there rest of his life.^

\

Jaunpur

Jaunpur was an important city of madieval India. In the
Saltanate period it had been a centre of great political and
cultural importance under the Sharqui ruers. Even After its
annexation with the Mughal empire it maintained its dignity

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.350.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.348.

3. Ibid p. 349

157

as a great seat of learning. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi realized
the importance of this city and decided to introduce his
mystic and religious mission in it. lie sent Shaikh Tahir
Badakhshi as his Khalifa in this city.

According to Zubdat-ul-Maqarnat Shaikh Tahir, a
nativeof Badakhshan in Aghanistan had been a soldier in his
youth. But later he gave up the military service and led a
sufi life on the instruction of the Holy Prophet whome he
saw along with Abu Bakr Siddiq and other companions in a
vision.1 For some time he wandered about various places and
called on many saints to benefit from them, it is reported
that he distributed all his clothes among the poor and
needy persons, and wore garment of dervish.2

Having visited many cities and villages Shaikh Tahir
Badakishi ultimately reach Delhi and came into contact with
Khwaja Baqi Billah^who imported spiritual education to him.
when the Khwaja passed away Tahir Badakhshi joined the
circle of Shaikh Ahmad and performed spiritual exercises
under him at Sirhind. The contemporary tazkiras say that
Shaikh Ahmad highly regarded the mystical achievement of

1. Zubdat-ul-Muqamat . p. 364

2. Ibid

153

Muhammad Tahir and even sometimes informed his other
disciple of his rapid success. 1 2 3 4

In 1017 A.H./1608 A.D. Sirhindi conferred the Khilafat
on and sent him to Jaunpur in order to get the Naqshbandi
silsilah introduced and popularized there. 1 it appears that
in the beginning Shaikh Tahir also had to face some
difficulty. People avoided his company by getting
impression that he wa^ a malamati sufi. Once he himself
wrote to his spiritual mentor about the circumstances in
Jaunpur but Sirhindi, however, asked him to be determined
and devoted in his mystical task. Afterwards. people
attracted towards and envinced enthusiasm in accepting and
adjoining the Naqshbandi order. 1

i

Allahabad

Sirhindi did not neglect the importance of Allahabad as
well. He himself seams to have visited this city on one
occaion.^ no sent Sycd Mohibullah, who belonged to Manipur,
near Allahabad, as his deputy in the city. Previously Syed

1. Ibid, p. 365

2. Hazarat-ul-Quds , p.342.

3. Zubdat-ul-Muqamat . p. 366

4. Maktubat, Vol. I. Letter No.313.

159

Mohibullah was a disciple of Shaikh Muhammad bin Fazlullah
of Burhanpur. He resided there for a long time where he
often visited Mir Muhammad Nu'man to be informed of the
techings of the Naqshbandi silsilah. Through these frequent
visits to Mir's Khanqah, where the letters of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi were read out and his teachings imparted to the
audience, Syed Mohibullah came to know about Sirhinid. The
latter dispatched an epistle to him ev$n before he met him
at Sirhind.-*- lie was so impressed by the personality of
Shaikh Ahmad that he went to sirhind to joind his mystic
discipline and perform spiritual exercises under him. The
Shaikh after giving him the Khilafat asked Mohibullah to
stay at Allahabad for the popularization of the Naqshbandi
silsilah.2

Deoband

Deoband was another town to which Ahmad Sirhindi turned
his attention. He deputed Shaikh Ahmad, one of his close
Khalifas . to this town for the propagation of the Naqshbandi
silsilah. Shaikh Ahmad himself belonged to Deoband and had
spent a long time «$f his life in travelling various places.
Later he came into contact with Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and

1. Zubdat-ul-Mucamat . p. 382

2. Ibid, pp. 382-83

studied Tasawwuf and theology under him. He is also reported
to have accompanied sirhindi during his journey of eastern
U.P. 1 He also visited Burbanpur and received Khilafat from
Shaikh Fazlullah but soon he again turned to Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi. Having performed spiritual exercises under his
guidance for several years Ahmad Deobandi received the
Khilafatnama . 2 3 Initially he worked for some time in his
native town and attracted many people towards him. But
afterwards he shifted to Agra where some Qasim Khan, the
subadar of Bangal, came into his contact and got himself
converted to a sunni from shia after being impressed by his
spiritual ecstacy. He also visited Bengal on the request of
Qasim Khan. The Hazarat-ul-Ouds says that Ahmad Deobandi
earned great fame and populairty there. Finally he returned
to Agra and died there at the age of seventy. 2

Bengal & Bihar

% .

Shaikh Ahmad also paid attention to the provinces of

Bengal and Bihar. He deputed Shaikh Ilamocd Bengali to Malda

V

as his chief disciple in Bengal. He first come into contact

1. ^ Hazarat-ul-Ouds , p. 349

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid, pp. 50-51

with Shaikh Ahmad in Agra. 1 2 3 Tt is reported that in thonc
days he did not at all believe in Sufism and even hated
Ahmad Sirhindi on account of his mystical thought. In the
mean time Shaikh Ahmad visited Agra and stayed with his old
friend Mufti Khwaja Abdur Rahman. Shaikh Hameed had already
reached there fro& Lahore and was staying at the house of
the same Mufti ♦ On being informed of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi*s
arrival he shifted to another place with a view to avoid the
company of the former. But after two days, due to some
important matter, he had to come to his previous designation

r

where he found Shaikh Ahmad who deeply influenced Shaikh
Hameed by attracting him towards his spiritual excellence. 2
Hameed later decided to accompany Shaikh Ahmad to Sirhind
and subsequently joined his mystic discipline. After
performing spiritual excercices for a several years Shaikh
Hameed received Khilafat and was asked by his pir to go to
his home-town Malda in Bengal in order to popularize the
Naqshbandi silsilah there.3

On reaching Bengal Shaikh Ahmad started his activities
there. Both Hazarat-ul-Ouds and Zubdat-ul-Maaamat state that

1. Zubmat-ul-Maqamat . p.354.

2. Ibid., p. 355.

3. Ibid. , p.135.

152

he also earned great fame and many people visited his
Khanqah at Mai da to obtain spiritual blessings.^

As far as Bihar was concerned Shaijch Ahmad selected
Patna as the centre of his mission in that province. It was
Shaikh Nur Muhammad whom Shaikh Ahmad sent to Patna to
introduce his religious and spritual mission. Moreover,
after some time, another Khalifa Shaikh Abdul Haiya was also
deputed to Patna for this task.

Himself a native of Patna, Shaikh, I>|ur Muhammad, after
visiting many places of religious and spiritual importance
and benefiting from various sufi saints, first came into
contact with Khwaja 'Baqi Billah. The Khv/aja later assigned
him to the care of Shaikh Ahmad Sfrhindi who deeply
influenced him. After receiving spritiuaf training for some
years, he became received the Khilafat of Shaikh Ahmad^ who
in 1015 A.H./1606 A.D. asked him to stay at Patna, his
native place, for dessiminating the Nawshbandi silsilah in
Bihar. In compliance’ with his pir's instructions Nur
Muhammad reached there and constructed a small house (hut)
near the bank of rive Ganges.^ Thousands of people came to

1. Hazarat-ul-Quds , p. 317

2. zu.bd.at-u 1 -Mugaroat , p. 351

3. Ibid.

1 03

his Khanqah to pbtain his spiritual blessings. Shaikh Nur

r

Muhammad imparted religious and mystical education to his
visitors and described the teachings of the Nagshbandi
silsilah to them.-*-

Shaikh Abdul Hai was another Khalifa of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi to have been sent to Patna. Originally a native of
Hisar Shadman, a town in Asfaniyan, Central Asia (now in
Tajikstan in U.S.S.R.), he migrated to Jndia and settled
down in Patna where he came to know about Shaikh Ahmad's
spiritual greatness. Subsequently he reached Sirhind and
joined the mystic discipline of the Shaikh* At Sirhind Abdul
Hai also compiled, (on the instruction o£ Khwaja Muhammad
Ma'sum, Sirhindi's son) the second volume of Shaikh Ahmad's
maktubat.2 After imparting spiritual education and giving
mystical training to Shaikh Abdul Haj, Ahmad Sirhindi
conferred his Khilafat upon and asked him to go to Patna for
the popularization to the Naqshbandi teachings and thought.^

Contrary to Shaikh Nur Muhammad, who lived secluded
life near the river ganges, Abdul Hai took his abode in the

1. Ibid. , p.353.

2. Zubdat-ul-Muoamat . p. 376

3. Ibid.

164

heart of the city and devoted himself to his master's
mission.^ Shaikh Ahmad sirhindi was so greatly impressed by
the mystical'performance of Shaikh Abdul tlai that he wrote
in a very high esteem about him in one of his letters to
Shaikh Nur Muhammad.2 The author of Hazarat-ul-Quds says
that in a short span of time Shaikh Abdul Hai became the
centre of attention of thousands of people. Even ulama .
sufi§, and government official came to him and obtained his
spiritual blessings. Very soon he earned fame and
popularity. A large number of people from all sections of
the society became his murid and many of them received
Khilafat .3 shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi regarded the presence of
his khalifas in Patna as a great achievement. Once he wrote
to some of his sincere friends that the existence of both
Shaikh Nur Muhammad and Shaikh Abdul Hai in Patna at a time
is the conjunction of two auspicious stars. 1 2 3 4

Kashmir

Though the Hazarat-ul-Quds and the Zubdat-ul-Maqamat
are silent about Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi's mission in Kashmir

1. Zubdat-ul-Muaamat . p. 376

2. Maktubat . Vol. II,-L.No. 85

3. Hazarat-ul-Ouds . (Persian) II, p. 366

4. Ibid Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p. 376

165

but the Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani reveal that the Khalifas
of the saint wore also deputed to this hilly state. So far
as Sirhindi's relations with the Kashmiri ulama and sufis
were concerned/ he had been in close coptact with some of
them during his studies at Siyalkot. Both Maulana Muhammad
Kamal and Shaikh Ya'qub Surafi Kubrawi, under whom Sirhindi
completed his higher education, belonged to Kashmir. Shaikh
Ahmad's fast friend Maulana Hasan Kahsmiri, who first
introduced him to Khwaja Baqi Billah, came from Kashmir.
Moreover, the Shaikh also is reported to have visited
Kashmir on Jahangir's invitation.

Punjab ^

As far as Shaikh Ahmad's native state Punjab was
concerned, it drew more and more attention of the saint for
the propagation of his mystic and religious mission. He
himself resided at Sirhind which was ap important town of
Punj'ab at that time. Many of his disciples and Khalifas hand
gathered there after coming from far and near. The Shaikh,
despite his busy schedule of prayer and meditation, attended
his followers, taught them Islamic theology, imparted
spiritual education to them and guided their mystical
performance. Moreover, the local population and the
inhabitants of the adjoining areas also throughed to Shaikh
Ahmad for spiritual solace. Many of them approached him for

1G6

being aware of the different aspects of the religious laws,
the Shariat , many visited him to squinch their spiritual
thirst, many of them desired to listen to his discourses and
a large number of people went to the Shaikh's Khanqah only
in order obtain his spiritual blessings. The saint fulfilled
their desires and all of them gained their goals. All these
not withstanding, the Khalifas of the Shaikh also worked for
the development of his master's mission in his own home¬
town. Moreover, the sons of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also
participated with full enthusiasm in their father's mystic
and religious activities. His eldest son Khwaja Muhammad
Sadiq assisted his father in training the disciples and
other spiritual matters. He also supervised other important
matters of the Khanaah both in the presence and absence of
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. After the s$d demise of Khwaja
Muhammad Sidiq in 1025 A.H./1616 A.D. the whole
responsibility of the Khanaah fell to Khwaja Muhammad Saeed
and Khwaja Muhammad Ma'sum. Both these brothers played
important part in the development of their father's
religious task. All the visitors of the Khanqah were highly
impressed by their scholarly approach and spiritual
attainments. Th«^se brothers maintained his father's
traditions even during his imprisment end his journeys to
various places alongwith the royal army.

1G7

Moreover, Shaikh Badruddin, another Khalifa of Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi, also actively participated in the
popularization of the Naqshbandi silsilah in Sirhind and the
surrounding areas. Shaikh Badruddin Sirhindi had been a
student of Shaikh Ahmad and received spiritual education
under him. It is reported that Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi trained
Badruddin step by step in his mystical discipline with as
much devotion as he had for his sonsj. Shaikh Badruddin
joined Shaikh Ahmad's mystic discipline at the age of
fifteen and lived with his spiritual mentor for a
considerable long time.l He is also reported to have
compiled and translated some works on sjufis and sufism but
these could' not survive. He produced the famous work,
Hazarat-ul-Quds , ^on Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and other saints
of the Naqshbandi silsilah in two volumes. Badruddin
initiated many persons into his own mystic discipline. Even
his uncle and some ladies of his family joined his spiritual
circle. The Naqshbandi - Mujaddidi tazkiras reveal him a
popular sufi among the inhabitants of Sirhind town.2

Next to Sirhind, Shaikh Ahmad turped to lahore which
was the most important city of Punjab at that time. AFter

1. Hazarat-ul-Ouds , P. 386

2. Ibid, pp. 387-413

153

receiving Khilafat from Khwaja Baqi Billah, he himself had

visited lahore where large number of ulama, mushaikh ,

*

aminent Muslims and even common people had showed great
enthusiasm and respect to him, and his religious mission. lie
now decided to make this city a permenont centre of his
religious and mystic activities. He appointed his Khalifa ,
Khwaja Muhammad Sadiq, to this task. Originally he belonged
to Kishm in Badakhshanba. But later he migrated to India and
joined the royal service under Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan who
introduced him to Khwaja Baqi Billah. Sadiq kept the
company of the saint and performed spiritual exercises under
him. After the Khwaja's death he became a disciple of Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi who after bestowing his khilafat upon sent
him to Lahore (as his deputy) for the dessimination of the
Naqshbandi silsilah.^ He was so keenly devoted to Ahmad
Sirhindi that the latter used to say that he was very much
indebted to Shaikh Tahir Lahori. His simplicity and modesty
was famous among the other disciples of his master. Shaikh
Ahmad loved Shaikh Tahir so much that he sometimes
performed the congregational prayer (Namaz?-i-Jamat) behind
him. Shaikh Tahir was also the tutor of Sirhindi's sons.2

1. Hazarat-ul-Ouds pp. 345 - 47.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . pp. 340-41

169

Later on/ Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi authorised Shaikh Tahir
to initiate disciples into both the Naqahbandi and the Qadri
silsilahs.l There Shaikh Tahir dedicated himself to the
development of his master's mission. Many people of all
corners throughed to him. He imparted the teachings of the
mentor to all his visitors and disciples.^ According to
Zubdat-ul maaamat he did not accept and even had not any
association with the non-spiritual persons. He earned his
livelihood through legal means by transcribing the copies of
manscripts.3 He would visit Sirhind every year^ till his
death on 20 Muharram 1040 A.H./29 August 1630 A.D.^

After the death of Shaikh Tahir Lahori» Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi did not leave this important city with out his
Khalifa . He assigned this task to Maul^na Abdul Wahid and
Maulana Amanullah. They both zealously worked for Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi's mission by accelarating the work of Shaikh
Tahir. 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p. 342.

2. Ibid, pp. 343- 46

3. Ibid., p. 346

4. Ibid

5. Hazarat-ul-Ouds , p. 327

6. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat # pp. 388-89

17U

The other eminent Khalifa of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi who
played a significant role in the history of Muslim Punjab
was Shaikh Adam Banuri who throughout his life fought
against th religious innovations as well as the non-Islamic
trends among the then Muslim society. After instructing him
on the mystic path and imparting spiritual education to him.

Shaikh

>

Ahmad Sirhindi

bestowed

his

Khilafat

on him.

The

author

of

Ilazarat-ul-Quds savs

that

amc bii

ma' ruf

the

command

to

do what is

lawful,

and

nehiunil

munkar,

the

prohibition

to do what

is unlawful.

was the main object

of

Shaikh Adam's life.l

The Shaikh resided at Banur, his native village. A
large number of people, especially the military men, felt
attracted towards him and became his murid . Whosever desired
to join his mystic circle, halqa-i-iradat . Shaikh Adam first
asked him to perform tauba, repetence, and then to be strict
on the Shariat , the laws of Islam. It is reported that many
sufis of different silsilahs also became the followers of
Shaikh Adam Banuri. 2 In 1053 A.H./1643 A.D.Shaikh Adam went
to Mecca for Haij pilgrimage and then visited the tomb of
the Holy Prophet at Medina where he died after staying for
some years and was buried near the grave of the third Pious
Caliph, Usman bin Affan.^

1. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.383.

2. Iiazarat-ul-Ouds . p.384.

3. Ibid, p. 385

CHAPTER-V

RELIGIOUS THOUGHT AND MYSTICAL IDEOLOGY

171

CHAPTER—V

RELIGIOUS THOUGHT AND MYSTICAL IDEOLOGY

1. The Concept of Tajdeed and the Millennium

The idea of taideed developed at a very early stage of
Islamic history. When, after the completion of the Pious
Caliphate, ( Khilafat-i-Rashidah ) in 4Q A.H./ 664 A.D., the
tyrant Kingdom based on many non-Islamic ideas, was estab¬
lished and the Muslim rulers accepted and followed the
Iranese as well as Roman precepts and principles, a feeling
of revival of the prophetic tradition and usage evolved in
the religious class of the Muslim Society. This conscious¬
ness of the Muslim religious class got encouragement also
from the sayings of the Holy Prophet himself who is reported
to have said that the best of his community was the genera¬
tion in which he was sent, then those who followed them,
then those who followed theni.l In fact this Iladit h worked as
a basis for the idea of revival of the Prophetic usage among
the Muslims. That is why, the ulama of the muslim religious
class, through out the centuries have been making efforts to
recapture the Prophet's period, which was the most ideal
period of Islamic history. In other words the task of reviv-

1. For details See, Sahih al-Bukhari . Volume II. Chapter
I, (the book of the greatness of the companions of the
Holy Prophet).

1 72

al of the Prophetic traditions has always been a meritorious
action that could be performed by a Muslim.

Indistinguishable from the idea of revival of the
Prophet's usage there is the concept of taideed , or the
religious renewal, which also has its source in the Hadith
literature . According to Sunan-i-Abu Dau d the Holy Prophet of
Islam said, "God will send to this community on the eve of
every century a man who will renew its religion".1 On this
account the person to renew the religion of the Muslim
Community is called Muiaddid or tenewey or reformer. It is
maintained that many persons, e.g., Umar bin Abdul Aziz,
Imam Shafi', Mohammad bin Idris, Ibn-Sujrai j, Imam Baqillani
Muhammad bin Tayyab, Imam Asfrayyini Ahmad bin Muhammad,

t

Imam Ghazali, Imam Fakhruddin Razi, Ibn-i-Daqiq Abid Muham¬
mad bin Ali, Imam Bulqini Sirajuddin, Jalaluddin Suyuti and
others, have accordingly been entitled as Muiaddid of their
respective centuries. 2 The main responsibility of a Mujaddid
is to save the Muslim society from the darkness of infideli¬
ty (Kufr), polytheism ( Shirk ) and other non Islamic trends,

1. Sunan Abu Daud . Vol. II Cairo 1952. P. 518/ also
Nu'mani,p,12

B.A. Faruqi, Muiaddid 1 s Conception Tawheed, Lahore,
1940 , p.40.

Friedmann, p.13.

2 * Muiaddid 's conception M Tauhid f pp. 1-2.

173

and reintroduce the Islamic Principles in it. Before the
advent of the Holy Prophet of Islam God yiould send a proph¬
et in order to preach His Shariat amongst the people of the
world. But after the Prophet of Islam thejre would not appear
any prophet. Accordingly, the Ulama of Islam have been
assigned the responsibility of reviving the Islamic laws,
i.e., Shariat and renewing the religion. The Muiaddid does
not bring any new Shariat but revives the existing one, come
down to the Prophet of Islam. He invites Muslims to adopt
Islairr in its pure form. He doesn't at all compromise with
anti-Islamic thought at any religious point.^ Infect a
Muiaddid 1 s nature and feelings are very much harmonious with
those of a prophet of God. 2 But it is to be pointed out that
he ( Muiaddid ) is not a prophet. He works as follower of the
Prophet of Islam and reminds his fellow followers to be
determined on the path of Shariat . It is also to be men¬
tioned here that Muiaddid does not claim this title for
himself whereas a prophet has to claim himself a prophet and
asks his people to join and follow him if any body denies a

1. In this connection see, Maulana Muhammad Miyan, Ulma-i-
Hind ka Shandar Mazi . Vol. I, Delhi 1985,pp. 235-38/
also,

Tazkirah Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani . pp. 12-24 / also,

Abul A'la Maududi, Taideed wa Ihva-i-Din , Delhi 1986,
pp. 42-51. 5

2. Ibid, p.43.

prophet or rejects his mission, he becomes an infidel where¬
as the denial of a Muiaddid and his teachings docs not mean
the expulsion from the faith. A prophet is well informed of
his own prophethood and receives God's Revelations ( Wahi)
through the angel, Gabriel. Muiaddid knows nothing even of
himself whether he has been sent to fulfil the task of
taideed or assigned the dignity of a Muiaddid . He makes all
his observations and decides all matters on the basis of
Kitab-wa-Sunnah , i.e. the Quran and the Hadith .^

As mentioned earlier, many Ulaina and Sufis had been
entitled as Mujaddid of their centuries. But, on the other
hand, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was given the title of Muiad-
did-i-Alf-i-Thani . the renewer of the second millennium of
Islam. According to Zubdat-ul-Magamat , it was Mulla Abdul
Hakeem Siyalkoti who first of all addressed Ahmad Sirhindi
with this title. 1 2 It appears that the Shaikh had accepted
himself as Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani The Maktubati-i-Imam-i
Rabbani also contained references in this regard. In one of
his letters Shaikh Ahmad writes, "We should know that after
every hundred years there has been a Muiaddid in Islam. But
there is great difference between the Muladdid of the cen-

1. Maududi, op.cit., p.43.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.176.

1 75

tury and the Muiaddid of the millennium. These two types of
muiaddids are as different to each other as there is dif¬
ference between hundred and thousand. ]t is the Muiaddid of
the millennium through whom the followers of Islam, whether
the saints of their times, receive God's favours and bless¬
ings .

So far as the origin of the concept of
Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani is concerned, all the main sources of
Islam i.e., the Quran and the Hadith , are totally silent.2
However, the author of the Rauzat-ul-Qftiyyumivva tries to
establish authenticity of the concept. lie quotes two ha-
dithes which reveal that the Holy Prophet of Islam had
predicted the appearance of Shaikh Ahjnad Sirhindi as the
Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani.3 According to one of these hadithes,
"A man will arise at the beginning of the eleven century who
will be great light and whose name will be the same as mine;
he will arise amidst tyrant kings; thousands of men will

1. Maktubat ‘Vol. II -Letter No.4

2. Maulana Mohamifiad Miyan tries to establish the appear¬

ance of the Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani on the basis of
Kitab-wa-sunna ♦ See, Ulma-i-Hind Ka Shandar Mazi

Vol.1, pp. 239-249.

3. Kamaluddin Muhammad Ahsan, Rauzat-ul-Oaiyvumivva (Urdu
trans.) Lahore, n.d., part I, pp. 37-38.

17c

enter Paradise through his intercession." 1 2 3 4 5 The other hadith
says, "There will be a roan in my nation who will be called a

«r

f ,

conjoiner, through whose intercession there will enter
Paradise so-and-so."2 The Shaikh himself writes to his son
Khwaja Muhammad Masum, "Praise be to A^lah who created me
as a conjoiner between two oceans and $ pacifier between two
parties."3 in another letter, addressing his eldest son
Khwaja Muhammad Sadiq, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi refers to his
times as being 'full of darkness' and says that at such
times, on the eve of the millennium, during the pre-Islamic
period a stead fast prophet (paighamhar-i-ulul-azm)* was
sent to the ancient communities (Umam-ri-Sabiqah) , in order
to establish a new Shariah . However in the Islamic communi¬
ty, which is the best of all and whose Prophet is the last
prophet, this is not poonible. The Muslim ulama have
therefore been awarded the same rank that had previously
been given to the prophets of Israel .5 ^ muiaddid is chosen

1. See Jami-ul-Darar

2. See, Jama'ul-Jawami'

3. Maktubat, Vol. II, letter no. 6 (On this point also see
Jamil Ahmad Sharaquri, Irshadat-i■'-Muiaddid Lahore, pp.
252-56).

4. For details see Holy Quran . XLVI - 34.

5. It is an allusion to the hadith: '"Ulama of my commu¬
nity are like the prophets of israej.."

177

amongst from-them on the eve of every century, not to briny
a new shariat , <*but to revive existing one. This is
especially necessary after the passage of thousand years.
This is the time in which steadfast prophet was sent during
the pre-Islamic period as an 'ordinary' prophet could not
have performed the task. When a period such as this occurs
during Islamic era, the situation requires a man of perfect
knowledge who is capable of fulfilling the task of the
steadfast prophet. The Shaikh quotes a verses which means,
"If the bountiful Holy Spirit will help again, others will
also do thing that Jesus had done." -*•

According to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi the views held by
earlier sufis, that the Haaiat-i-Muhammadi (the reality of
Prophet Muhammad) is superior to the Haaiaat-i-Kabah (the
reality of kaba),is not correct.He is of the opinion hat the
stage of Haqjqat-i-Kabah is the highest haqiqat or reality.
According to him, then, one stage lowep, there is a stage of
Haqjqat-i-Ouran and then exist haqjqat-i-Muharomadi ♦ Sirhindi
says that with the advent of the Millennium the whole above
structure undergoes a fundamental transformation. He writes,
"A thousands years after the death of the prophet a time is
coming in which haqigat-i-Muharnmadi will ascend from its

1. Maktubat . Vol. I letter No. 234.

1 73

position and unite with the position o£ hagigat-j-Kaba . At
this time Ilagjgat-i-Muhammadi receives the name of Haq iz
aat-i-Ahmadi and becomes the manifestation of the Essence of
God. Both blessed names ( Muhammad and Ahmad ) unite with
their meaning. The former position of paaigat-i-Muharoroadi-
will remain vacant until Isa ( Jesus ) despends and enacts the
shariat of the prophet of Islam. At that time Hagigat-i-
Isawi will ascent from its position and establish itself in
the position of Haaiaat-i-Muhammadi that had remained va¬
cant. In another letter Shaikh Ahmad clearly describes the
hierarchy of realities ( Haoaiq ) with regard to the Millenni¬
um. He says, " The prophet of Islam had in his life time two
individuations (ta ^vvun ) . the bodily huiqan and the spiritual
angelic. The two individuations were symbolized by the loops
of the two mims of his name. The bodily individuation
guaranteed the uninterrupted relationship between the
Prophet and his community, and consequently ensured its
spiritual well-being. The spiritual, on the other hand,
directed itself towards the Divine and received the conti-
nous flow of inspiration emanating from that source. A
proper balance was thus maintained between the world and the

1. Sirhindi, Mabda 1 -wa-Ma'ad (Persiap Text with Urdu
translation), Karanchi, 1984, pp.78*-79 (Urdu, pp. 204-
6), also, Maktubat-j-Imam-i-Rabbani Vol. I, letter no.
260.

1 73

spiritual aspects of the Prophet's personality, and the
Islamic community was continuously under guidance, both
prophetic and divine. Since the Prophet's death, however,
his human individuation has been gradually weakening while
the spiritual one has been steadily gaining strength. Within
a thousand years the human individuation disappeared alto¬
gether. Its symbol, the first mim of Muhammad, disappeared
along with it and was replaced by an alif standing for
divinity ( Uluhiyat ). Muhammad came to be Ahmad. He was
transformed into a purely spiritual being, no longer inter¬
ested in the affairs of the world. The disappearance of his
human attributes facilitated his spiritual ascent and ena¬
bled him to reach the highest possible stage and to free
himself from mundaneattractions; it had, however, an ad¬
verse impact on his community, which lost the lights of
prophetic guidance emanating from the Prophet's human as¬
pect. This is why infidelity and innovation have gained the
upper hand, while the lights of Islam and Sunnah have grown
dim." 1

1. Maktubat Vol. IJ.I, letter no. 96.

■ Freedman writes, "Sirhindi is thus in agreement with
the view that the ideal period of Islamic History was
between his own spritual progress and his wordly ac-
tivies , directed to guide the community in the ways of
God. Sirhindi also agrees that the ideal prophetic
period was followed by a gradual decline, caused by the
growing imbalnce in the performance of the two prophetic
tasks he does not, however, subscribe to the view that

Sirhindi considers the Millennium as the beginning of
the last stage of Islamic history.According to him the
period of the Prophet and the Millennium is so close that it
is difficult to differentiate between thein.^ He says that at
this time (the Millennium) the perfections of prophecy
( Kamalat-i-Nabuwwat ), which have been gradually disappearing
since the death of the Prophet of Islam will reappear in
persons who deserve this blessing because they are the
Prophet's heirs and followers. The person who possesses
these perfections is the ' Muiaddid ' of the Millennium
(Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani) He is called upon to fulfil some
of the Prophet's tasks with regards to his community. His
knowledge is derived from the light of the prophecy which
regain their splendour. It is far beyond the knowledge of
the ulama and gnosis of the sufis. Shaikh Ahmad says that

f.noto contd. from prev.

this decline is irreversible. As soon as it reached its
lowest point, with the complete disappearance of the
human attributes of the prophet and the absolute rever¬
ence of his ties with his community, the trend was
reversed and a new development set in." ( Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi , p. ).

1. This idea has been derived from the tradition of the
Prophjet who is reported to have said, "My Community
is like the rain it is not known whether the beginning
of it is better or the end". See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawil
Mukhtalaf al-Hadith . Cairo 1326, pp f 139-41.

2

See Maktubat Vol. I, letter no. 261,

whatever blessing the Islamic community receives during this
period (the Millennium) is through the mediation oi : the
muiaddid of the Millennium.

In another letter as well, Shaikh i^hmad writes to his
senior Khalifa Mir Muhammad Nu'man, "The period of the last
stage of this community starts on the completion of a thou¬
sand years after the death of the Holy Prophet, when starts
the second Millennium. The period of a thousand years is
closely related to the circumstances and has deeply im¬
pressed the process of alteration and change in this
(Islamic) community, the former's attributes with its fresh¬
ness, have reappeared in those who have come later; These
attributes, on the beginning of the second Millennium,
illuminated the Islamic community by reviving and renewing
the Shariat".^

Thus we- see that the concept of taideed and the
Millennium holds % very important posit ion in the develop¬
ment of the personality and thought of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhind.
Friemann says, "The idea of taideed . with which Sirhindi at
a relatively early period of his life, is well documented in

1. For details see, Maktubat , Vol.I, Letters•No.260, 301/

Vol. II, Letter No.4 / Vol. Ill, Letter No.124.

2. Ibid., Vol. I, letter No. 261.

1S2

the classicai IsJnmic source:;, Uiomjli I
taideed-i-Alf is apparently Sirhindi's

lie derived
innovation

concept oJC
h!

1. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi > p. 20

2. CONCEPT OF TAWHID

As far as Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi's concept of
Wahdat-ush-Shuhud the Unity of Appearance, is concerned, it
is generally believed that he vehemently crticised Muhijad-
din Ibn-i-Arab and totally rejected his spiritual though
ideology, i.e. the concept of a monism w$hdat-ul-wujud. but
in fact his rejection of the feat Spanish sufi and his
thought is far from being as complete a^id unequivocal. His
criticism of differs widely from the criticism of the ulama.
It is therefore seems appropriate to briefly study Shaikh
Ahmad's attitude towards ibn-i-Arabi before proceeding to
his criticism of the latter's thought. The Maktubat Shaikh
Rabbani reveal that Sirhindi's criticism of some certain
aspects of Ibn-i-Arabi's thought does not present him from
appreciating his contribution to the development of Islamic
mysticism as a whole.He recommends the study of Ibn-i-Ara¬
bi 's works and considers them indispensable to the proper
appreciation of his own spiritual insights. Moreover, he
frequently quotes Ibn-i-Arabi's works in his own letters and
treatises. The author of Zubdat-ul-Maoamat , Khwaja Muhammad
Hashim Kishmi says that Sirhindi considered Ibn-i-Arabi a
great saint and regarded him in high esteem.^ Shaikh Ahmad

1. Zubdat-ul-Maoamat . p.211.

himself writes in one of his letters that Ibn-i-Arabi,
despite his unlawfullness utterances (Shath Khalif-i-
Jawaz), , belongs to the group of faithfuls and is known
among the great Muslim saints. We should accept him as such
and should not be agreed with his mystic thought which are
full of danger and may lead the beginner to herery and
infidelity.1 In another Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi says, "It
is the Shaikh (Ibn-i-Arabi) with whome I sometimes fight
and sometimes agree.He further writes in the same
letter, "we latecomers have also benefited from the
blessings of that great man and learned a great deal of his
mystical insights. May God give him the best reward for
this".3

So far as Sirhindis own concept of Tawhid as well as
his criticism of Ibn-i-Arabi's thought, were concerned, it
is better to briefly discuss first of all Ibn-i-Arabi's
concept of Tawheed.’ According to Islamic ideology Tawhid
literally means oneness of God. But Ibn-i-Arabi thinks that
Being is one which exists. That being is Allah. Everything
else in His manifestation. Hence the world is identical
with Allah. According to him there is an identity between
the . existence and essence or substance and attributes

1. Maktubat . Vol.III, Letter No.77.

2. Ibid., Letter No.79.

3. Ibid.

(Zat-o-Sijat) of Allah. As the world is the manifestation

(tajalli) of Allah's attributes, it is therefore

»

identical with Him.l In other words tjie Zat or Being of
Allah is identical with His Sifat or attributes. And-these
attributes express themselves in the form of lujalliyyat
manifestations, e.g., the world. Ilence tjiere is an identity
between the world and His Being. According to Quran Allah
has many other names which are callled Asma-i-Ilahi a
Divine Names. These express His attributes. There is no
difference between those Divine Names and His Musamma
the Named that is His very Being. Those Divine Name,
though they are many, denote the same existence,i.e., the
existence of Allah.2

In bringing out his theory of identity between Allah
and the world Ibn-i-Arabi has to proceed either the negation
of the world or from the affirmation of Allah. As He and His
existence cannot be denied, Ibn-i-Arabi, therefore, negates
the existence of the world. He holds fhat it is merely
nominal, unreal, imaginary and objectively non-existent. It
has no existence its own. Allah alone exists.^

1. Abdur Razzaq Qashani, Sharh-i-Furus-ul-IIikam . Cairo,
1321 A.H., pp.8-9.

2. Sharh-i-Furus-ul-Hikam . p.233.

Faruqi, p.90

3. Sharh-i-Furus-uft-Hikam . p.117.

Faruqi, p.91

When both Allah and the world are identical, the world
is supposed to be Allah* This is what the concept of
wahdat-ul-wajud of Ibn-e-Arabi means further explaining his
point of view Ibn-i-Arabi says that Allah is Asl or thing
and the world is His Zill or adumberation. According to him
the Zill or adumberation is the appearance of asl or the
thing. It is asl ppearing, manifesting itself. Hence the
world is identical with Allah.^ Ibn-i-Arabi holds the con¬
fession of faith, the Kalema, (There is no object of wor¬
ship but Allah) not in its proper form but he intrepret it
as," None exists but Allah".

Similarly, Ibn-i-Arabi seeks an identity between man
and Allah. He maintains that the relation between man and
Allah is that of identity of immanence. It means there is a
nearness or Qurb between Him and a map.^ This theory is
actually based on a Quranic verse which indicates that Allah
is nearer unto man than his life-artery. Abu-i-ARabi takes
unto man than his life-artery .3 Ibn-i-Arabi takes this
Hadith in the sense that God himself is the very essence of

1. Sharh-i-Furus-ul-Hikam . p.113, 116/

Faruqi, pp.93-94.

2. Sharh-i-Fusus-ul-Hikam . pp.77-79/

Faruqi, p.94.

3. "We are nearer unto him than his life-artery".

the limbs and parts of man. To support this theory Ibn-i-

Arabi quotes another . which means that

Allah created man after His own Image. All these things
result in that possesses all the attributes of God. It is
His attributes that are manifested in man. In other words
they are bodily there in man.* Moreover, Ibn-i-Arabi ex¬
plains his concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud in other way also.
According to him this concept is also connected with the
divine Prophetic Tradition "I was hidden Treasure; I wished
that I should be known, so I created the creatures". Com¬
menting upon Ibn-i-Arabis explaination of this Prophetic
Tradition Dr. B.A. Faruqi says, "The purpose of creation,
according to him, is the yearming on the part of Allah to
know Ilimself. Faruqi further says, "The yearning to know
Himself is the yearning for self-perfection. This perfection
consists in expression or realisation of His own self
through the temporal and eternal qualities that manifest
themselves in the world-process; in other words in actualis-
ing all the qualities that were potentially there in Him.
Thus from whatever side we start, Ibn-i-Arabi unambiguously

1. Sharh-i-Fusus-ul-Hikam . p.252.
Faruqi, p.95.

2. Ibid.

leads to Wahdat-ul-Wu jud"^. 1

This doctrine of Wahdat-ul-Wujud had a great hold upon
the mind of the people in medieval period. India also had a
long tradition of belief in this concept. Through the Bhakti
movement it had percolated into the conciousness of the
masses. Both mystics and philosophic believed in it. Even
many renowned Muslim saints had declared the experience of
Wahdat-ul-Wujud as the summum bomm of their attainment
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also believed in this concept since
his very young ag&. His father Shaikh Abdul Faruqi had been
a great admiser of Wahdat-ul-Wujud. He used to teach Ibn-i-
Arabi's Fusus-ul-Hu 1 kam and Futuhat-i-Makkivah to his stu¬
dents with great devotion and zeal. Many contemporary Ulama
and sufis had studied supervism under his guidance. Shaikh

r

Ahmad had also been trained as a mystic in the Chishtivah
Silsilah and then given the permission by his father 1 to
initiate his own disciples.3 so, Ahmad Sirhindi had inherit¬
ed the concept of Wahadat-ul-Wujud fromf his father. For

1. The Muiaddid's Conception of TawhiU . pp.95-96.

2. In this connection see, Rizvi, Muslim Revivalist
Movements/ Shakti Muahmmad Ikram, R qd-i-Kausar .

Muhammad Iqbal Mujaddidi, Abdullah Khweshri Qurui,
Lahore, 1972.

3 . See, Zubdat-ul-Macia mat, p. 134/

Maktubat . Vol.I, Letter No.31/

Mabda 1 wa Maud, pp.11-12/

Burhan , Vol.99, No.5, (May 1987), pp.34-35.

1 S3

several years and even alter becomincj a disciplio oi' Khwaja
Baqi Billah, who himself supported this concept, Shaikh
Ahmad would believe in Wahdat-ul-Wujud. lie lorked upon its
realization as the highest in mystic experience. Having
joined the Khwaja's discipline Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi started
his mystic training under him and made remarkable progress.
During the experiment Shaikh Ahmad first of all experienced
Wahdat-ul-Wujud. This stage so deeply overwhelmed him that
he lost his balance a little and expressed his sentiments in
poetry of a highly emotional strain and somewhat heretical

4

trend.lt appears from his Maktubat that this condition
prevailed for several years. And in very those days he once
wrote the heretical verses to his spiritual mentor.^ But the
latter corrected his disciple's exaggerated mystic ideas
withregarded to his esslatic experience, The Khwaja Report
him within the necessary discipline. Sirhindi himself says
in letter addressed to some shaikh Sufi, "Suddently Almighty
God bestowed His grace and favours upon me and alll hin-
drences in my way were removed. All type of knowledge which
had previously informed me about Union wjth God and Wahdat-
ul-Wu jud disappeared. The surrounding penetrations, nearness

1. See Maktubat-i-Iman-i-Rabbani . Vol. 1, Letter No.192.

2. Ibid, Letter No.31.

and personal association which had appeared to me in this
stage, also disappeared. I came to know with certainity that
all above stages and knowledge have no (relation with God.
The surrounding and the nearness of Allah is theoritical as
is generally believed and approved by true persons, i.e.
Ulama . May God give them reward of their effort. Allah is
not United with anything. Allah is Allah and the world is
world. He is Incomparable. Unparalled where as the world is
without these nature.* Thus, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi first of
all experienced wahdat-ul-wujud and fe}t that he existed
only in God and had no existence of his own. This he called
the stage of Wuiudivat . Commenting upon the stage of mysti¬
cal experience Dr. B.A. Faruqi syas, "The object- of mystiesm
at this stage is to turn the belief baser! on faith or reason
into sure and certain knowledge based on dierect experience
with regard to God and relation to man and the world, - that
God exists, that He is immovent in mean and the world and
that His relation with the world is that of identity. This
stage lasts for a long interval and the Mujaddid realises it
in all its detail it in all its detail and in all its

depth.

1. Maktubat , Vol. I, Letter No.31.

2. Faruqi, pp. 96-97.

the stage of

Any how, during these experiences
Wahdat-ul-Wujud sood passed and there came greater balance
in Sirhindi's ecstatic amotions. A little latter he come to
know that the tawhid-i-wujudi was not the reality.* Through
his mystic experience, the conviction grew in him that the
Wahdat-ul-Wuiud was not the highest stage. He then advanced
to a higher stage than the previous one where he felt that
his existence was a shadow of the existence of God, sepatal^
from His existence as the shadow is separate from the sub¬
stance Sirhindi called this the stage of Zilliyat or a
dumbration. With regard to the relation between God and the
world Shaikh Ahmad at this stage found that the world has a
being of its own, though it is only the Zill or
shadow,having resemblance of the reality. According to B.A.
Faruqi a sense of duality arose in him and he seriously
began to doubt Wahdat-ul-Wujud.2 it is to be mentioned here
that Sirhindi had not immediately Wahdat-ul-Wujud. But he
was not sure of its certainty. That wa$ whyhe did not pos¬
sess the clarity and connection to deny this mystical con¬
cept. Fa'rooqi is lightly of the opiniop that Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi, due to his long association w|th Wahdat-ul-Wujud,
did not want reject it at all but rather he wanted to c'on-

1. Maktubat , Vol.I, Letter No.292.

2. Faruqi, p.97

192

tinue his affiliation with this concept. It wa only because
of this feeling that the desired to remain on this stage,
i.e., the stage of Zilliyat as it was somehw related to the
stage of WAhdat-ul-Wujud. To quest Faruqi, "Indeed he yearns
to stay on in this stage because it affinity wit Wujudiyat,
- the world is seen as Zill or adumbration of the Asl or the
Real i.e. of Allah."! In nut shell he found himself reluc¬
tant to leave behind the stage of Zilliyat.

The Shaikh continued his spiritual experiments, and, in
course of time, he proceeded further in the development of
the mystic consciouness. Hence the duality of God and the
world became clear to him. In other words, he felt that his
own existence was different fro the existence of God. He
also felt that his existence was dependent upon God's will
for its being.lt was subservient to God, yet separate.
Sirhind realised that it was the true and the highest mystic
stage. He called it the stage Ubudiyat pr abdiyat means
subservience to God in separate existence. Here he also came
to know that his first experience was the result of his
intoxication. Due to his love for God and his strong desire
in this regard, he had been so submerged in emotion that he
had felt that he was not separate from Hijn. He came to feel

1. Ibid.

193

that Wahdat-ul-Wujud was not the reality, it was only a
feeling, an experience.* He clearly came to know that the
world and God-or he or God are two. He w^s fully satisfied
with this and realised that all his previous mystic experi¬
ences ware really subjective and unreliable,; - the did not
correspond to objective reality. This is what he termed as
Wahdat-ul Shuhud or Tawhid-i-Shuhudi, the unity of Appear¬
ance. ^ was convinced that the stage Wahdat-ul-Shuhud was the
truth. No room was leftr now the identity of God and man. He
ultimately came to the conclusion to speak of an experience
of God, i.e. Wahdat-ul- Wujud, which the sufis do is blas¬
phemy. There is no guarantee of truth in it be as mid all
mystic experience reveal the final truth, At thes tage of
Wahdat-ul-Shuhud, Shaikh Ahmad satisfactorily experienced
that "Gos is far and far above the grap of our fculty of
reason adn Kashf . He writes in one of his letters that Allah
is beyond the beyond, and again beyond the Beyond. "3 He also
realised that neither His being nor His attributes are
directly knowable.^

1. See Maktubat . Vol. I, Letter No.43.

2. See Ibid.

3. Maktubat, Vol. II, p.l.

194

As for the mystic experience, the Shaikh writes that
the followers of other faiths also had mystic consciousness
and experience.1 Hence, in the words of Ishtiaq Husain
Quraishi, In view of the contradictions jn their experience,
mystic experience, by itself, could not be the criterian of
spiritual truth."2 sirhindi expressly realised at this
stage that Iman-bil-ghab or ’the faith in the Unseen' alone
is the truth.3 Coffeequently he clearly told that the revela¬
tion ( Wahi ) alone is infallible and, there, provides the
sole criterion of spiritual truth and, thus, of mystic
experiences. According to him any mystic experience which
goes against the teaching of the Holy Prophet, who was

r

guided by revelation and was protected by God from error,
can be dismissed as the result of 1 2 3 4 suky 1 intoxication.^ in
another letter Shaikh Ahmad writes that the experience in a
stage of ecstasy was not always reliable as ecstasy of was
the condition of intoxication. In this stage the intensity
of emotion and depth of feeling were capable of playing
tricks even with the mystic consciousness. According to him
the higher statices that of 'sobriety' when the senses were

1. Ibid., Vol.I, Letter No.266.

2. 1.13. Qureshi, The Muslim Communit y of Indo-Pakistan
Subcontinent, Delhi 1985, p.171.

3. Maktubat , Vol. I, Letters No.207, 217

4. Maktubat , Vol.I, Letter No.286.

195

sufficiently undor control to record upon the consciousness
of the true nature of the reality.^

As for Sirhindi's criticism of Ibp-i-Arabi's thought,
it must be borne in mind that the arguments of both these
saints are mixed up with the descritiou of mystic experi¬
ence. Shaikh Ahmad starts from what Ibn-i-Arabi considers
the final mystic stage, i.e. in God existence and essence or
being and attributes (dhat-o-sifat) ar£ identical, and the
world or man is the tajalli or emanation of sifat or at¬
tributes. In other words all that exists in God, outside
whome it could not exist. He Existence is one, and there is
nor other existence. This the stage of Wahdat-ul-Wujud.2 But
to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi existence is of several kinds God's
existence in Unique, being self-sustaining, infinite, and
timeless. According to him God's attributes exist in Him but
are not part of His existence because He can exist without
any Of these attributes.^

In this connection it is also to be kept in mind that
Shaikh Ahmad was not totally against Ibn-i-Arabi. He paid
due respect and to Inb-i-Arabi and Hg did not deny the

1. Ibid, Letter No. 84

2. For details See, Irshad-ut-Talibin (Ms), ff: 1-15.

\

3. Maktubat , Vol. II, Letter No.l.

196

importance of his myotic experience beat tried to judge it
with the framework of Islam Dr. Qura'shi rightly says, "It
the Mujaddid himself had not been a uufi, he would have
been capable of subvertings, the entire sufi thinking. The
Mujaddid, however, recognized the volume and importance of
the mystic experience and was desirous of disciplining it so
that it might not subvert the Fatih through its imbalance.
Sirhindi's 'Wahdat-ul-Shuhud' is an advance otage where the
mystic reaches when he proceeds further from the stage
Wahdat-ul-Wuiud . When the mystic passes over to the higher
stage he realises the error involved in the stage of
Wahdat-ul-Wujud. According to him at this stage the mystic
experiences Fana or anihilation. Here ho is absorbed in the
being of God and ulter forget fulness with regard to the
things other than Him. That is why he sees nothing but God,
and considers every thing as Him.2 In other words he denies
the existence of everything else and affirm the being of
Allah alone. Sirhindi poses another example by saying that
when the mystic overwhelmed by Wahdat-ul-Wujud looks at the
sun, he denies the existence of the stars, whereas the
supportee of Wahdat-ul-Shuhud knows that the stars do exist,
though sees only the sum. According to Shaikh his (the

1. TJ3& Muslim Community of Indo-Pak Sul^-continent . p.172.

2. Maktub at. Vol.I, Letter No.122, 291 1

197

Shuhudis) consicou^ness is in the stage f agyn-ul-yaqin
while that of the Wajud remains at the lower stage of
ilm-ul-yaqin. The highest stage of consciousness, that of
ilm-ul-yaqin, can be reached when the sight of the on locker
is sharpened to guch an extent that he can see the stars

r

and the sun simultaneously. It is possible only at the stage
of Wahdat-ush-Shuhud. 1 2 3 So far as the world is concerned
Sirhindi agrees that indeed it is mere imagination (Wahm),
but adds that it has been a measure of stability adn perma¬
nence by divine volition. The world is not imaginary in the
sense that it appears only in peoples imagination, but in
the sense that God created it to be so. It has, therefore,
a kind of independent existence, though not comparable with
Existence of God.2 Shaikh Ahmad said that the concept of
Wahdat-ul-Wujud, as such, led common, uninitiated people to
hereby and neglect of the Shariah . the laws of Islam.^
According to to him God is beyond the roach of our reason
and comprehension, and that what the Wuiudis regard as
immanent are mere fabrication of their own imagination, whom
they have raised to the dignity of God. God is high above

1. Maktubat, Vol. I, Letter No.43.

2. See Friedmann, p. 64.

3. Ibid., p.67/ Also, Petter Hardy, Sources of Indian
Traditions , New York 1959, p.449.

our KasHf-o-Shuhud or intuction and experience.Sirhindi
insisted that there is absolutely no relation between the
world and God except that it had been created by Him. As to
mean, Shaikh Ahmad holds that the essence of man is the
soul, and the soul is the creation of God. Both the world
and man are signs that indicate His hidden attributes. God
alone has real, actual independent being? and the world has
an existence besides God only as a gift of God. In reality
the being of the world is not more than appearance appear¬
ance without genium reality.2 the relation between man and
God is concerned. Sirhindi says that t of abd and anabud or
the worshipper and the worshipped. There is also another
relation between men God; that is mariful or congtion.3

When we compare Sirhindis Wahdat-us h-S h uhu d with

i

Abu-i-Arabis Wahdat-ul-Wahud, we come to the conclusion that
the farmer, by propounding his concept of Tawhid, really has
contributed great service to Muslim mystic thought. The
moral consequences of Shaikh Ahmad's comption of
Wahdat-ush-Shuhud cannot be ignored. Infact Ibn-i-Arabi's
concept had played an important part in the development of

1. Maktubat, Vol. I, Letter No.9.

2. Faruqi, pp. 132-135.

3. Maktubat . Vol. I, Letters No.30, 160.

193

heterodoxy in Indian continent. It also played its role in
Akbar's reverence for the sun and fire because to his mind
these were the manifestations of God. Ip the words Ishtiaq
Hussain Quraishi Wahdat-ul-Wujud results in quietism. The
emphasis upon a separate existence bads to the opposite. A
real belief in this concept can hardly creat a sens of
responsibility for ones own actions. 1 2 3 Bpt on the contrary
Shaikh ahmad's Wahdat-ush-Shuhud insists that the criterion
of a true mysti$ experience in its accordance with the
tenets of Islam and that all insions in astate of intoxica¬
tion are not rustworthy.. It tell that Allah can not be
known through mystic experiences. To know Him perfect one
will have to totally base on Revelation qr the Quran and the

r

Hadith Dr. B.A. Faruqi says, "Evidently this doctrine is as
never to religion or Islam as Wahdat-ul Wujud or Unityism'is
away from it. - And the Mujaddid seems to have successful]y
brought about this reclamation."2 He further says, " There
can ahardly be any doubt that the call of the Mujaddid to
all Musalmans and Islamic mystics is Away from Plotiness and
his host, and back to Muhammad." 1

1. The Muslim Community of Indo-Pak, Sub-continent, Delhi
(Reprint), 1985, pp.174-75.

2. Faruqi, p.187.

3. Ibid.

CHAPTER-VI

REACTION TO AKBAR'S RELIGIOUS EXPERIMENTS

CHAPTER VI

REACTION TO AKBAR'S RELIGIOUS EXPERIMENTS

As mentioned earlier Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi stayed for a

long time at the royal court of Akbar in Agra. He personally

observed the whole political, social, cultural and religious

atmosphere and even came into contact with many eminent

ulama , sufis, scholars and nobles as well as government

officials in order to study their attitude - both thinking

and activities, towards Islam,its Prophet, Revealed Book and

the followers. Though it is unknown whether he ever met

Emperor Akbar, sources say he was fully acquainted with the

circumstances of the time and specially the situation in

the royal circle. Born in the first decade of Akbar's reign,

Shaikh Ahmad was forty three at the timp latter's death in

1014 A.H./1605 A.D. Hence the last twenty five years of his

whole period of administration were completely in the eyes

of the saint. All the contemporary and later works

including his own maktubat and other treatises - reveal him

a great opponent and severe critic of the policies and

attitude Akbar adopted for Islam and Muslims. But before

studying the Shaikh's reaction to Akbar'p religious thought

and activities, it is better and necessary first of all to

*

bring to light the Emperor's religious experiments.

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, who ruled over India for
about a half century, (1556-1605), played most important

201

part in consolidating the Mughal empire in the subcontinent.
In the words of Ishtiaq Husain Quraishi, "He built up, from
extremely shaky foundations, a mighty and splendourous
empire. 1 All the contemporary sources, whether produced in
India or the works of foreign travellers, are unanimous in
their assessment of Akbar as possessed of a powerful
personality, magnetic and inspiring. 2 3 His period is credited
with political stability peace, harmony and economic
prosperity. However, we are informed of great concern and
distress, on the issue of religion and religious activities
in the Royal Court, among the Muslims of the age. Badayuni
throws immense light on Akbar's dislike and hated of Islam
and Muslims. The other historian arid the works of

contemporary ulama and poets also supply the material in the
context. Let us study the process of' his religions
experiments at the court in a very systematic and chronologi¬
cal framework.^

1. I.H. Quraishi, Akbar, Delhi 19 , p.

2. K.A. Nizami, Akbar and Religion . Delhi 1909, p.l.

3. According to Professor K.A. Nizami Akbar's attitude

towards Islam falls into three distinct phases.

First phase . 1556-1574

Second phase 1575-1580

Third phase 1501-1605

He says, "His (Akbar's) attitude towards Islam was
of sympathy in the first, of apathy in the second and
antipathy in the world". See for details, Akbar and
Religion . pp.100, 101.

202

Akbar, in the early years of his reign, seems a pious,
true and devout Muslim, having great lQve for and extreme
devotion to Islam, its Prophet, and Almighty Allah. . He
offered namaz punctually, observed the fast of Ramazan , paid
zakat and fulfiled religious obligations. He took very much
interest in religious festivals. He also helped poor and
needy persons, distributed alms and charity among them and
worked for their welfare and upliftment. He reversed ulama ,
respected sufis and mazhaikhs and regarded religions
personalities in high esteem. He also paid visits to the
shrines of eminent saints - especially the daraah of Khwaja
Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer. His firm belief and religious
confidence strengthened in him strong feelings to work in
accordance with Islamic lav/s and customs. Although be
married the daughter of Bihari Mai in 1562^, remitted the
pilgrim tax in 1563 1 2 and abolished iizva in 1564 3 4 , he
however, continued to show his deep interest in religions
and religious matters .and displayed religions reactions of
different sorts, specially during his important campaigns.4

1. For details see, Akbar. the Great Mogul . Delhi 1966
(Third India Reprint), pp.42-43.

2. Ibid.,p.47.

3. Ibid., p.48.

4. Ibid., pp.50-52, 88-92.

It was his religious stannchriess that in 1574 he changed the
name of Prayag to Allahabad. 1 Moreover, the dismissal of
Bayram Khan which took place in 1560 car* also be seen into
religions perspective. 3

Akbar had deep love and respect for the Prophet of
Islam during the early years of his reign. It is reported
that when Abu Turab, on his return from Haii pilgrimage,
brought a stone with the impression of the Prophet's foot on
it, he (Akbar) went out several miles to receive the relic. 3
He also respected the family of the Prophet, when in 1564
one of his wines gave birth to twins, Akbar named them Mirza
Hasan and Mirza Husain.4

Akbar, in the early years, was so much devoted tot lie
religion and religious ideology that he was generally

1. Ibid., pp.161-2.

2. Akbar and Religion . p.102.

3. Abdul Qadir Badayuni, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II,
Calcutta, 1869, p.32.0. Also Nizamuddin Ahmad, Tabaaat-i-
Akbari , Calcutta 1927, Vol.II, p.528.

4. Abul Fazl, Akbar Nama . Calcutta 1873-07, Vol.II, p.236.

critical of other modes of thought and behaviour. It appears
that he strictly followed the Sunni path as there is an
example of its that in 1569 Mirza Muqim of Isfahan and Mir
Yaqoob of Kashmir wer.e put to death on the recommendation of
Shaikh Abdum Nabi and other ulama for certain Shia-Sunni
differences

We are also informed of Akbar'w extreme religious
aptitude, his long and untiring association with religious
and spiritual exercises with sincerity #nd genuine faith. lie
performed his reS-igious duties meticulously. He himself
offered the five time namaz punctually and even exhorted
others to offer prayers regularly an<l in congregation.2
Seven imams (leaders of the congregational prayers) were
appointed by him for each day of the week. Sometimes he
himself called people to for namaz by pronouncing the azan -3.
Shaikh Farid Bhakkari says that Akbar even cleaned the a
mosque with his own hands. In the matter of dress also,he

1. Badayuni, op.cit., Vol.II, pp.124-25.

2. Ibid., p.350.

Also, Akbar and Religion . p.108.

3. Shahnawaz Khan, Maathir-ul-Umara . Vol.II, p.561.
Also; Akbar and Religion , p.108.

adhered to the norms of religion. Farid Bhakkari writes,

"The late Majesty (Akbar) used to wear dress according to
the practice of the Prophet and used to strive hard in
enforcing things permitted and preventing acts forbidden
(by the laws of Shariat ) .* Shahnawaz Kt\an also says the same
thing. According to him Akbar in those days strictly
followed the Shariat and made all possible efforts for *amr
bil maruf and nehi an' al mukar'.^ Badayuni has given the
details of his repetition of the names of God though out the
nights in meditation. To quote him: ’’Most of the time he
(Akbar) passed in discussion about 'g§la Allah *. God says,
and 'qala Rasul', the Prophet says. He kept himself engaged
in spiritual sayings, learned discussions and ascertaining
the truths of philosophical and theological problems etc. He
passed the whole night in meditation on god, and repeating
'ya Hu* (0 He) and 'yaHadi* (O'guide) , j:he names of god, in
which he became well-versed. In order to offer his
thanfulness for any Divine favours, he (Akbar) used to sit
in morning, by way of humility, alone pne'a biack stone in

an old room, in the neighbourhod of the royal palace. "3

%

1. Zakhirat-ul-Khawanin , Korach 1961, Vol.I, p.69.

2. Maathir-ul-Umara . Vol.II, p.561.

3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, pp.200-1.

Interest in religious festivals

Akbar took great interest in religious festivals.

Professor Nizami writes, "Whether due to youthful exuberance

or in order to study public attachment with saints and

shrines. Akbar some- times restored to strange tracks. Many

people made flags of different colours and carried them,

*

alongwith offerings and presents, to the tomb of Syyid Salar
Masu Ghazi at Bahraich. Large contingents went from Agra
also and kept vigil for several night preparing for the
occasion. Akbar went incognito to see there flag
processions. When a person seemed to have recognized him, he
immediately rolled his eyes and sguinted, rendering
recognition impossible". 1

Akbar laid great emphasis on Haii pilgrimage. A large
number of Muslims went to ARabia every year on the royal
expenses.2 Akbar sent gifts to the shari f of Mecca though
these pilgrims. A huge amount was every year given to them

1. Akbar and Religion , p.103.

Also Akbar Nama . Vol.il, p.145.

2. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . II, p.258.

Also, Tabaqat-i-Akbari . Vol.II, p.517.

for the distribution among the needy and poors of Mecca and
Madnia. Once a sum of six lakhs of rupees was sent for this
purpose.^ He is also reported to have financed the

construction of a Khanqah for the s( ay of pilgrims in
Hijaz. 1 2 3 4 According to Badayuni Akbar had issued a general
order to the effect that any one who deqired for Haii , might
go to Mecca at the^royal expenses. 3 The author of Maathir-
i-Rahimi informs us that when the Kingdom of Gujarat was
entered amongst the added territories, i\kbar decided to send
a special delegation of pilgrims from India consisting of
bright hearted persons of Indian, Central-Asian and

Khorasanese origin with ration and other materials, like the
caravans of Egypt and Syria, to Haiia pilgrimage through the
ports of Gujarat.4 it appears that at one stage in 1576
A.D. he himself expressed his wish to performed Haii . At
one time the zeal of the Emperor reached such a level that
the stripped himself, donned the pilgrim's garment ( ihram )
and uttering the words 'Allahuma labbaikh, Allahuma

1. Badayuni, op.cit., Vol.II, p.246.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid., p.239.

4. Abdul Baqi Nahavandi, Maathir-i-Rahimi . Vol.I, (Baptist
Mission Press), 1924,p.835.

2ns

labbaik 1 2 (My God I am present, My God I am present ) went

on for some distance to see the pilgrims.-*- Such rights moved

the spectators and convinced them of his deeply religious

sentiments. He had appointed ‘Mir-i-Hajj' to look after the

>

needs of the pilgrims Khwaja Yahya, a descendant of Khwaja
Obaidullah Abrar, Sultan Khwaja, son of Khwaja Khwand
Mahmud, and Abu Turab acted as the leaders of the Haiia
pilgrims and defrayed the expenses of the party on different

occasions.2

Akbar held ulama , the religious scholars, and mashaikh,
the sufi-saints, in high esteem. Encouraged by his excessive
interest in traditional religion, the section of the
conservative ulama made a bid for controlling his religious
behaviour and consolidating their position at the court. He
appointed Shaikh their position at the court. He appointed
Shaikh Abdun Nabi as his 'Sadr-us-Sudur', and in course of
time he developed great respect for him. Akbar was so deeply
attracted towards the Shaikh that he often visited his

1. Badayuni, op.cit., Vol.n, pp.200-1,

2. Ibid., pp.151, 246, 320.

Also, Akbar Nama , Vol.m, pp.382-83.

Also, Akbar and Religion . p.110.

Also The Religious Policy of Akbar . p.16.

203

residence to attend his discourses on ha^ith # the traditions
and fiah # the Islamic jurisprudence. Sometimes he also did
not hesitate in putting the Shaikh's shoes in order to pay
his extreme regards to him.l One one occasion he sent to him
through Abdul- Qadir Badayuni costly and beautiful Nakhudi
Shawals, prepared*5- in the royal workshop, with a message,
"These shawls are from our own private treasury and we had
them prepared for you, do use them".^ As Sadr-us-Sudur Abdum
Nabi enjoyed wide powers with reference to the grant of
'madad-i-maash' land. Akbar added more powers and enhanced

r

his status and position.3 He also sent Prince Saleem to the

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II, p.204.

2. Badayuni, op.cit., Vol.II, pp.237, 243-44.

3. It may be mentioned that Abdun Nabis attitude towards
Akbar also became over bearing. Once, some suffron water
was sprinkled on the clothes of Akbar on the occasion
of his birth day. The Shaikh objected to this and in
great anger threw his rod towards Akbar. It fell near
him and broke into pieces. Angrily bp enquired from the
Emperor as to why he had put on the dress of 'ahl-i-
bid'at', (people who indulge in innovation. Akbar was
exasperated but he controlled himself. He expressed his
distress and agony to his mother who pacified him by her
remark that the incident really enhanced his dignity
since it was in the enforcement of " Shariat principles
that the Shaikh had acted in that way and that God would
reward for his (Akbar's) patience, See Zakhirat-ul-
Khwanin , Vol.I, pp.69-70.

210

Shaikh's house to study the Chehl Hadith of Maulana Abdur
Rahman Jani.^

Similarly, Abdullah Sultanpuri, the other distinguished
alim of the period, also succeeded in getting close to
Akbar. Jealous of Abdur Nabi's influence he developed
acrimonious attitude towards him. He was known as "Shaikh-
ul-Islam and 'Makhdum-ul-Mulk"

Besides, Akbar also highly regarded the mashaikh of his
period. During early years of his reign Akbar's faith in
sufis and saints was beyond the measure. During his conflict
with Hence he approached Shaikh Jalaluddin Thanesari and

'i

sought his blessings. 1 2 3 On another occasion he paid another
visit to the Shaikh. 4 5 Likewise, a large j^gir was granted to
Syed Muhammad Ghanth of Gwalior, the famous sufi of the
Shattari silsilah, and, after his death, he continued to
pay reverence to his son Shaikh Ziaullah. 3 When Prince

1. Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh # Vol.II, p.204.

2. Akbar and Religion . p.115.

3. Ahmad Yadgar, Tazkira-i-Humavun wa Akfrar . pp.356-57.

4. Akbar Nama , Vol.III, p.341.

5. Mumtakhab-ul-Tawarikh , Vol.II, p.202.

\

Saleem started his education/ Akbar held a huge ceremony and
invited Maulana Mir Kalan Harawi to bless the prince. 1 He
also had firm faith in and highly regarded Shaikh Saleem
Chishti, through whose blessings he was rewarded wit the
birth of Prince Salem. He is reported to have set his wife,
(Prince Saleem's mother), to the saint's house in order to
obtain his spiritual favour.2 Moreover, Prince Murad was
also born at the Shaikh residence. 3

As the Shaikh was ninety five years old in those days.
Akbar punctually went to his Khanaah . he was concerned of
his old age and deteriorating health.

Akbar is also reported to have approached and obtained
blessings from Shaikh Burhan, Sahikh Nizsmmuddin of Narnaul,
- %

1. Ibid., p.170.

2. Ibid., pp.108-9. In this context Badayuni says, "As the
Emperor has some issues who died early, and in this year
one of the respected ladies became pregnant he sought
the help of the Shaikh ul-Islam Chishti, a resident of
Sikri, and sent his lady in the sacred precinct of the
Shaikh. The Shaikh had, before this, given the good
news of the auspicious birth of the prince and the King,
delighted with this good news, used to visit the Shaikh
after every few days and was awaiting the fulfilment of
the promise. For these mutual interviews, he built a
big edifice on the top of the hill of Sikri, near the
monastery of the Shaikh.

3.

Ibid., p.123 .

Shah Abdul Ghafoor of Azampur, Miyan Abdullah of Badayuni
and Shaikh Nizamuddin of Ambethi.^

Both Abul Fazl and Badayuni inform of Akbar's faithful

attitude towards Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer. He went

there first of all in 1562 in order to pray for the birth of

a male child. Badayuni say, "On the 8th Jamada I, 969, (14th

January 1562), he went on a pilgrimage to the holy tomb of

the pillar of Shaikhs and saints, Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti

(may God sanctify his secretly), and bestoved gifts and

bounties on assidous in prayers.Subsequently, he under

took several journeys to Ajmer. His second visit to the

%

shrine of great chishti saint is reported to have been paid
in 1568, after his victory of Chittor.^ This time he went on
foot to the shrine of the Khwaja. ^ The third visit of
Emperor Akbar, to Ajmer,w as paid in 1570, after the birth
of Frince Saleem, in order to pay homage to the great
saint.5 At this time he ordered the construction of

1. Akbar and Religion . pp.111-12.

2. Badayuni, op.cit., Vol.II, p.49.

3. Akbar Nama . Vol.II, p.324.

4. Akbar the Great Mogul . p.69.

5. Akbar Nama . Vol.II, p.350.

buildings at Ajmer and Nagaur. He also arranged for the
management of the dapgah and provided funds for the care and
comfort of the visitors.^

Akbar also visited the tombs of the mashaikh of Delhi

and pleased the saints and the poor by his gifts of dirhams

and dinars . 1 2 3 4 In 1564 he visited the shrine of Shaikh

Nizamuddin Auliya. Once on his way back from the dargah he

had to face an attempt on his life. It is his love for the

*

muslim saints that he attributed his providential escape to
the spiritual help of the Shaikh and other saints of Delhi. 2
He also went to Hansi and visited the tomb of Shaikh
Jamaluddin, and distributed charity.1 He went to see the
dargah of Shaikh Fareeduddin Gan j-i-Sljakar at Pakpatan, in

1. Ibid., pp.350-51.

Abdul Baqi Nahavandi has given a detailed account of
this journey of Akbar. He says that Akbar went on a
pilgrimage to the tomb of Khwaja Mginuddin Chishti (may
God sanctify his secrets) . His Majesty engaged himself
in the fulfilment of the vows, started from Agra on
Friday 12th Shaban, 977 (20th January 1570), for Ajmer
where he performed all the conditions of pilgrimage and
rules of circum ambulation and bestowed presents on the
saints and poors. See Maathir-i-Rahimi . Vol.I, p.768.

2. Ibid., pp.857-61.

3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, p.6Q.

4. Maathir-i-Rahimi . Vol.I, pp.857-61.

2 M

Punjab, were, throughout his stay, he performed prayers and
spiritual exercises. 1 2 3 There he also kept himself engaged in
the company of saints and men of God.^ in 1574 he sent Mir
Ghiyathuddin and Naqib Khan to the shrine of Shaikh

Sharafuddin Yahya at Maner, alongwith a large sum of money,
in order to ask for inspiration. 1

Change in attitude and construction of £he Ibadat Khana

Now we find a change in Akbar's religious outlook. We
also observe a state of enquiry and skepticism in him.
Contrary to his interest and attraction the religion; its
followers and obligations, during the early years for
understanding the principles of Islam and the ultimate
Reality as well. He also seems to passionately interested in
the mystery of the<yrelations between Gocj and man, and in all
the deep questions concerned with that relation. With he
returned home after gainiriy a long succession of remarkabJe
and decisive victories which left him without an important
enemy, he - issued orders for the erection of a building at
Fatehpur Sikri entitled 'Ibadat Khana' the House of worship.

1. Badayuni, op.cit., Vol.II, p.124.

2. Nahavandi, op.cit., Vol.I, 857-61.

3. Akbar Nama . Vol.III, p.94.

215

the chief object of Akbar in raising this religious hall was
to provide facilities to the selected persons representing
the various schools of muslim theological and philosophical
learnings to provide for his heart yearning for truth.

'f

Initially he invited four classes of Muslims, viz. ulama or
the doctors of islamic jurisprudence and laws; mashaikh or
the Muslim saints; Sved s or the descendants of the Prophet
of Islam; and umara or important and selected nobles of the
royal court. Giving a detailed account of this Hall of
worship, Mulla Abdul Baqi Nihavandi, the author of Maathir-
i-Rahimi . says, "As from the beginning of his youth fortune
avoured him (Akbar), through the guidance of the auspicious
fortune. His Majesty, the Caliph of God, had an inclination
for the company of the masters of learning and perfections
and the association of the men of sufi traits, he always
paid respect to this honoured class of people and admitted
them in his heavenly assembly and paradise-like hall. By
listening to the intricacies of the sciences, ancient and
modern, he acquired a perfect store of knowledge of the
history of the ancient religious and the narration of the
former peoples and course accounts of the stages of the
world. And through the great interest he took in this group
of people at th$ time of his return from the auspicious

\

216

journey to Ajmer* in the month of Zi-Qaida 982 )
corresponding to the 20th year of the Ilahi Era, he issued
this high command that skilled masops and thoughtful
builders should build a house and a hopie for the sufis in
the neighbourhood of the lofty palace; apd that none except
the group of Syeds of high status and the barred and the
Shaikhs should lie there. The expert engineers in
accordance with the world - abiding order, laid foundation
of a building comprising of four wings. And on the
completion of that auspicious edifice His Majesty the
Emperor (to whom the sky was a slave) spent his honours on
Friday nights and other holy nights in that holy building
and the house of love, in the company of the people of
Happiness till the down of the great lamp, ie. sin. He had
fixed the following arrangement: in the West, the Syeds
should sit; in south the ulama and the wise men; in the
north mashaikh and men of spiritual attainment should
without any difference; and umara or nobles, who had
connections with masters of learning and men of sufi traits,
should sit in the east. His Majesty bestowed his bounties on
the people of all the favour groups. He selected from
amongst the members of the assembly a number of people so
that they may bring to the notice of the King deserving
people who may be present within the precincts of the Ibadat

Khana. And with his ocean - bestowing hand be used to give
to every one handfulls of ^sharifis and rupees. And to those
who by ill luck were kept away from the receipt of His
Magesty's bounty, having gathered them on Friday morning in
the enclosure before the Ibadat Khana, Jn a line, he used to
give handfulls of gold; and if by chance some uneasiness
came to His Magesty's nature, he apv»ointed one of the
servants of the court he trusted for great kindness and
compassion.

So far as the proceedings of the House of Worship,
Ibadat Khana, are concerned, Abdul Qad^r Badayuni sheds a
flood of light on what happened there. He says, "After
performing his Friday prayers he (Akbar) used to come out
from the new monastery ( Khanqah ) of the Shaikh-ul-Islam and
arranged for an assembly in that house? of worship wherein
no other than mashaikh of the time and ulama and learned
scholars, with a few of the favourites and courtiers were
allowed admission. All sorts of instructive and useful
discussions were held. One day Jalal Kh^n Qurchi, who was my
patron and through whose influence I entered the services in
the midst of the conversation, said that he had gone to Agra

1. Maathir-i-Rahimi . Vol.I, pp.833-35.

to see Shaikh Ziaullah, son of Shaikh Muhammad Ghauth. The
latter/he said, was so much hard up that one day in the
assembly having taken some quantity of pulse, he took a part
for himself and gave a part to me and the part he sent for
his family. On hearing this news His Majesty was affected,
and listening to his words, he called for Shaikh Ziaullah
and fixed a place for him in the Ibadat Khana. Every Friday
night he called for'the groups of S yeds . mashaikh , ulama and
umara . and when he found some unusual behaviour from these
groups he laid down that nobles should sit in the east wing,
the syeds in the west, the ulama in thq south, and mashaikh
in the north. He himself came to them and held discussion,
ascertained the truth of his questions and employed all
sorts of pleasant arguments. Countless gold was given to the
deserving ones through the favourites in proportion to their
deservings. His Majesty himself distributed among the ulama
and the learned scholars many useful books which were
entered in the general treasury from Itamad Khan Gujrati
during the conquest of Gujrat. Of the several books given to
me was the one called Anwar-ul-Mishkat' 1 . 1

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II, pp.201-4

213

Thus we see that the meetings of the Ibadat Khana
continued, in the beginning, very quietly and with full
discipline. It also created in Emperor a love of Islam and
Muslims. But very Soon, in the subsequent years, it lost its
influence and played a significant role in Akbar's religious
deterioration. In the near future the house of worship
(Ibadat Khan) became a centre great differences amongst the
and other groups. Ill-feelings arose among themselves even
about the seats and the order of precedence. When the
discussions started, it was discovered that ulama, as
mentioned earlier, divided in groups and even individually
against each other. They differed not oply on common issues
but on fundamentals as well and showed intolerance for each
other's views. All these circumstances led emperor Akbar to
great anxiety and disappointment.

i

Stormy discussions in the Ibadat Khana led Akbar to
great discussions in the Ibadat Khana led Akbar to great
disappointment and unpleasantness. Instead of bring credit,
its proceedings brought frustration discredited to him.
Hence, he thought of stepping in as one invested. As public
interest in religion was necessary in order to qualify for

220

the investment of that authority, be, therefore, arranyed
Mitad (anniversary of the Prophet of Islam) celebration on a
big - circle. Nizamuddin Ahmad says that hardly there was
anybody in the city who did not enjoy feast that day. 1 2

He took one step further. In June J.579 he decided to
read the Khutba . congregational address, in the mosque and
lead the Friday prayer. Justifying this step of Akbar, Abdul
Fazl says, "As at this time it came to his hearing that the
guiding Imams and legitimate Caliphs did not leave worship
to others, but look this weighty matter on their own
shoulders, he (Akbar) resolved to initiate them in this."2
One Friday he displaced the regular preacher ( Khatib ) of
the chief mosque at Fatchpur Sikri, he, mounting the pulpit
( mimbar ) of the mosque, himself began to recite the
following verses composed by Faizi, "In the name of God, who
gave uc sovereignty, who gave us a wise heart and a strong
arm, who guided us in equity and justice, who removed ail

1. Tabaqat-i-Akbari . Vol.II, p.343.

2. Akbar Nama , Vol.III, p.396.

N.B. - Nizamuddin Ahmad make it more specific by saying
that Akbar wanted to emulate the traditions of the Pious
Caliphs, the Abbasids and the Timurides, particularly
Timur and Ulugh Beg. See, Tabagat-i-Akbari , Vol.II,
pp.344-5.

else from our thought justice. His praise is beyond the
range of our thought. Exalted be His Majesty, great in the
Lord."

It is reported that the situation was so serious that
Akbar had hardly recited these verses that he began to
stammer and tremble. He stopped and suddenly came down from
the puppet only after reciting the F atiha , the opening
chapter of the Quran . and few verses of the holy scripture,
and offered the Friday prayer.^

Furthermore, Akbar felt confident to proceed with the
idea suggested by Shaikh Mubarak some five years back, i.e.

r ' ♦

to claim himself a most superior religions as well as
spiritual leader of the Muslims of India. In the other words
he now decided to assume to himself all authority, temporal
and spiritual. Accordingly was drawn up by shaikh Mubarak in
the form of a Mubzar as "most just, most wise, and most

1. It may be mentioned here that Abul Fazl himself has
pointed out the public reaction to this action of Akbar.
He says that his (Akbar's) recitation of the khutba gave
lever to commotion and disturbance in the people. See
Akbar Nama . Vol.III, p.397.

Professor Nizami is rightiy of the view that
obviously it was due to strong public feelings against
Akbar's religious ideas that such a situation developed.
See, Akbar and Religion , p.127.

222

learned". The document is reported to have been issued on
behalf of eminent ulama of the Mughal court. According to
Badayuni, "After great circumspection and deep thinking on
the intricacies of the meaning of the holy verse. Obey god
and obey the Prophet and those who have authority among you,
and the true tradition ( Iladith ) surely the man who is
dearest to go on the.Day of Judgement is the Imam-i-Adil;
whosoever rebels Against him rebels against me, Akbar ruled
that the position of the Just Ruler in the eyes of God is
superior to that of the Muitahid . the interpreter of the
Divine Laws, the Shariat .

r "And His Majesty, the Sultan of Islam, the Protector of
men, the Amir of the Faithful, Abdu] Path Jalaluddin
Muhammad Akbar Badhshah, the worrior, is the most just, the
most wise and the most God-fearing, therefore, if in the
problem of religion concerning which there are different
concerning which there are different opinions among the
nmjtahids, he by his sound thinking and clear meditation,
takes side with one of the quarreling parties, in order to
facilitate the living of human beings,and welfare of the
world order, and issues an order, all must follow it; and
similarly if he issues are order just thinking, which in no
way conflicts with the text of the Quran and which tends to

223

the betterment of the people of the world, it is incumbent
upon all the act upon it and opposition to it will draw upon
its perpetrator the damnation of £he next world and
religious and wordly grief.- This truthful document is drawn
up for the glory of God and the propagation of the rights of
Islam, in the presence of the doctors of religion, the

ulama . and learned theologians, and took place in the month
of Rajab 987 A.H./ August 1579. 1,1 Even according to Badayuni
the text of the document runs as, "Whereas India has now
become the centre of security and pepce, and the land of
justice and beneficance, a large number of people,
especially learned men and lawyers have immigrated and
chosen this country for their home.

"Now we, the principal ulama # who are not only well-
versed in the several departments of the laws and in the

principles of jurisprudence, and well acquainted with the
edicts which rest on reason and testimony, but are also
known for piety and honest intention, have duly considered
the deep meaning, first, of the verse of the Qur an, 'Obey
God, and obey the Prophet, and those who have authority

among you, and secondly, of the genuipe tradition, 'Surely

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, pp.271-72.

the rnan who is dearest to god on the Day of judgement is the
Imanm-i-Adil; whosover obeys the Amir, obeys me; and
whosoever rebels against him, rebels against me. And thirdly
of several other proof based on reasoning or testimony. We
have agreed that the rank of Sultan-i-Adil is higher in the
eys of God than the rank of a muitahid .

?Further, we declare that the king of Islam. Amir of
the Faithful, Shadow of God in the world, Abdul Fath
Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar Padshah Ghazi is a most just,
amost wise, and a rrajst god-feasing king.

"Should, therefore, in future, a religious question
come up regarding which these opinions of the muitahids are
variance, and His Magesty, in his penetrating understanding
and clear wisom be inclined to adopt, for the benefit of the
nation and as a political expediendt, any of the conflicting
opinions which exist on that point, and should issue a
decree to that effect - we do hereby agree that such a
decree shall be binding on us and on the whole nation.

"Further, we declare that should Hip Majesty think fit
to issue a new order, we and the nation shall likewise be
bound by it; Provided always, that such order be not only in
accordance with some verse of the Qur^n , but also real

225

benefit to the nation; and further, that any position on the
part of his subjects to such an order paused by His Majesty
shall involve damnation in the world to come and loss of
property and religious privileges in this.

"This document has been written with honest intentions,
for the glory of God and the propagation of Islam, and is
signed by us, the principal ulama and lawyers, in the rajab
in the year 987 A.H.".l

It is stated that those who signecj the mahzar were
Makhdum-ul-Abdullah Su]tanpuri, Sadr-us-Sudur Shaikh Abdur
Nabi, Ghazi Khan Badkhshani, Hakim-ul-Mulk, Qazi Jalaluddin
Muttani; Badr-i-Jahan Mufti, and Shaikh Mubarak himself.2
But here it is remarkable that in accordance with Badayuni's
statement all these ulama except Shaikh Mubarak subscribed
to the document against their will and, that too, not
without a long discussion.3 Thus the mahzar assured to Akbar
the utmost power that any man could claim to exercise with
the limits of Islam. Though it seems to have been issued for
the propagation of Islam, to recognize the authority not

1. Badayuni, op.cit. . Vol.II, p.279.

2. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II, p.260.

3. Ibid., p.2-72.

only of Quran but of the genuine traditions of the Prophet
of Islam as well, yet also according to Badayuni, it
established the superiority of the intellect of the Iman-i-
Adil, the title proclaimed for Akbar, ai)d rendered any type
of opposition impossible. An Isl$m was considered
secondary.* He (Akbar) only wanted to possess the power of
ignoring all legal rulings if they inhibited him from acting
in accordance with his wayward desires to injure the
orthodox ulama and the position of orthodox Islam itself."2

Complete Change in religious outlook:

Now there starts third phase in Akbar's religious
attitude. During this period he adopted on attitude of
distrust and hatred towards the conservative section of the
ulama whom he had pampered in the first and tolerated in the
second phase of his career. He gave up prayers enjoined by
the Shariat , spoke with scant respect about the companions
of the holy Prophet, became critical of Islamic thinkers
like Razi and 'Ghazzali', and abjured h^s relations with the
mystic centres. He criticised not only the orthodoxy but the
principles of Islamic faith also, he now started working for

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.II, p.272.

2. Akbar , p.154.

his own supremacy in religious matters.1 According to

Badayuni the road to iitihad (interpretation) was opened for

him and it was established that the Imam (the Emperor)

possessed superior wisdom. No obstacle was left in his way.

*

The difference between things, lawful and unlawful, was
abolished. The superiority of wisdom of the Imam prevailed
over the Shariat . He now called Islam as blind acceptance of
traditions .2

Akbar gradually became stranged fro^n Islam and Muslims.
By 1580 he had definitely moved away from the old moorings
of his thought. According to Abul Fazl he joined the
standering tongues of the bigots of the age.^ He gave up
visiting the shrines of Muslim saints. He sent Murad to
Ajmer in 1580 to*represent saints. He sent Murad to Ajmer in
1580 to represent saints. He sent Murad to Ajmer in 1580 to
represent saints. He sent Murad to Ajmer in 1580 to
represent saints. "As he was himself on way to becoming a
religious leader," says Professor Nizami, "It was not below

1. Akbar and Religion , p.131.

2. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, p.272,

i

3. Ain-i-Akbari (English translation), p.163.

225

his dignity to accept anybody a superior to himself.He
felt that his association with and presence of the scholars
of other religions might produce some sobering influence.
He, therefore, came into contact with and opened the door of
the Ibadat Khana to Christians, Hindus, Jains and Parsees
etc. In the words of Abul Fazl, "The Emperor's court became
the home of the inquiries of the seven climes f haft aaleem ),
and the assemblage of the wise of every religion and sect. "2

With the admission of scholars of other faiths the
earlier atmosphere of recrimination and tension in the
'Ibadat Khana' disappeared. Abul Fazl says that sufi,
philosopher, orator, jurist, Sunni, Shia, Brahman, Jati,
Siura, Carbak, Nazarena, Jew Sabi (Sabian), Zoroastrain, and
others enjoyed exquisite pleasure by holding the calmness of
the assembly, the sitting of the world^lord iri the lofty
pulpit.^ Now Akbar made an attempt to bring about a
synthesis of various religions. In 1582 formal debates on
religion were stopped and a new religion styled as the
Tauhid Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi was promulgated. In 1584 the

1. Akbar and Religion . p.130.

2. Akbar Narna, Vol.III, p.366.

3. Ibid., p.365.

223

Italu Era was introduced. In 1592 millennia] coins were
issues Professor Nizami rightly says, "Both ideologically
and structurally the process of drifting away from the
central traditions of Islam was completed. The new faith
was based upon the principles of universal toleration, Sulh-
i-kul. Many important Hindu, Jain, Parsee and Christian
doctrines found a prominent place in it. There were the
important rites and rituals of the new faith:

1. Its follower!* had to exchange greetings with the words
Allah-o-Akbar and Jalla Jalaluh, and

2. The members were enjourned to distribute during their
life time the food that is usually distributed after death
to bless the soul of the departed;

1. Akbar and Religion ., p.132.

Commenting upon this new religion of Akbar, Professor
K.A. Nizami further says, "The Din-i-Ilahi had no
metaphysical or even ethical foundations. No religious
philosophy sustained it and higher moral or spiritual
values buttressed its ethical position. It was a
haphazard agglomeration of certain pituals, whimsically
visualized and pompously demonstrated. Von Noer totally
demolishes its foundations as a creed when he observes,
'The Din-i-Ilahi' had an importance of pre-eminent
practical value; it was a political fraternity the
members of which had bound themselves by oath to stand
by the emperor in good all ill-fortunes, in joy and in
trouble'. The use of religious medium for the
realization of political objectives had an inherent
danger of weakening, in the long- run, the base of
secular institutions." (See, Akbar and Religion , p.133).

3. Birth day portion wore to bo nr ranged compu.lr.ori.ly by
the members.

4. During birth days meat could neither be seen nor eaten.

5. Vessels of butchers, fishers and birth catchers could
not be used.

6. Cohabit ion wit^i old, pregnant or barren women and with
girls under age of puberty was forbidden.}

Disciples wer initiated into the fold of new religion
on Sunday because on that day the world illuminating sun in
its highest splendour. These disciples were required to

r

sacrifice their property life, honour and religion for the
founder of the faith, i.e. Akbar. ^ As a symbol of initiation
of shast was given to the new entrant. 3 Every new member of
Din-i-Ilahi, if he was a Muslim, had to adjure his faith in
traditional ( taqlidi 1 and metaphorical (m qiazi ) Islam.*

1. Akbar and Religion , p.135.

2. Badayuni, op.cit., Vol.II, p.304.

3. Shast is supposed to be the sacred thread that
Zoroastrians and Hindus tie round their waist and round
their neck. It is also known as zunnar .

4. It may be borne in mind that by demanding severance from
ancestral and traditional faith in Islam, one more
dimension was added to the situation: real Islam was one
as interpreted by Akbar and that all other
interpretation and approaches were wrong and needed to
be discarded.

231

The phrase Allah-o-Akbar, which means 'God is Great'
and is frequently repeated in the prayers, was interpreted
by the followers of Din-i-Ilahi as 'Akbar is God'. According
to Professor Nizami, "Being the form of solutation of the
followers of Din-i-Ilahi and the opening line of all works
writtens under court patronage, it came to be looked upon as
a subtle way to bruit about Akbar's claim to divinity.”1
Akbar used the phrase on the coins, thy imperial seals, the
royal farmans and in all official correspondence.^

The Siida or prostration is looked upon by Muslims as
the exclusive right of God. But in Akbar's court it became
part of religious devotion. They (the disciples) tooked upon
a prostration before His Magesty as a prostration performed
before God: for loyalty is an amblem of the power of God.
Akbar invented Siida for him and called it 'zamin bos'
(kissing the ground), and looking on the reverance due to a
king as an absolute religious command. He called the face of
the king 'kaba-i-Muradat' (sanctum of desires), and 'Qibla-

1. Akbar and Religion . p.136.

2. The Mughal farman, and even nishans continued to bear
the inscription 'Allah-O-Akbar' till the early years of
Shahjahan's reign. Later he substituted the prase by
'Bismillah ar-Rahman ar Rahim', means 'In the name of
God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful',

232

i-Hajat (goal of necessities). 1 2 Though being informed of the
public opposition and criticism Akbar had issued orders of
exemption and made prostration voluntary, he was annoyed if
anybody disregarded it.^

The situation did not stop here* Akbar and his
associates went to great extent in demolishing in cultural
structure of Islamic ideology and practices. He did not want
any limitation. All the restrictions, which Islam places on
autocratic power, were removed by making it subservient to
law. The main obstacle in his way was the class of ulama who
had not at all been impressed by the proclamation of the
malizar ♦ Even both Makhdum-ul-Mulk and Abdun Nabi seem to
have had qualms of conscience at having fixed their seal to
such a false and mischievous document ap the mahzar . Their
approval to it, though unheart ily, jiad made them so
disgraced that they retired from public life in their houses
and mosques. They are reported to have told every one that
their signatures had been obtained under duress and that its

1. Mumtakhab-ul-Tawarikh . Vol.II, p.259.

2. Ibid

233

contents were illegal. 1 Consequently, on hearing their
activities, Akbar, early in 1580, decided to banish both of
them to Mecca. It^ppears that so much discontent had spread
among the ulama that the continued presence of the two
divines was considered dangerous. It is to be mentioned here
that they were not silent even in Mecca and Madina about
what was happening in India. According to Muhammad Husain
Azad, both Makhdum-ul-Mulk and Sadr-us-gudur acquainted the
scholars ( ulama ) of Arabia with Akbar's aberrations. The
reports reached Akbar who was further enraged. 2 On

hearing the news of rebellion in Bengal and the march of
Mirza Muhammad Hakim against Akbar, in 1581, the two divines
returned to India. But Akbar treated them with great
severity as he did not like their coming back because of
their' unhidden hostility towards him. Makhdum-ul-Mulk was
poisoned.3 His dead body was taken very secretly to
Sultanpur, his home town and buried there. Akbar did not
stop here... All the property of Makhdum-ul-Mulk was
confiscated and his sons were repeatedly tortured.

1. Maathir-ul-Umara , Vol.II, p.563.

2. Muhammad Husain Azad, Dar bar-i-Akbari , Lahore 3098,
p.327.

3. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, p.3ll.

234

According to Badayuni his family was reduced to such penury

that they did not have a cat’s meal to satisfy their

hunger. 1 2 3 Similarly, Shaikh Abdun Nabi was also dealt with

extreme cruetly. lie went to the capital and had a private

audiance with Akbar. It is reported that the Shaikh spoke

>

harshly to the Emperor who was so engraged that he gave his
face a hard blow with his firt. Then he handed over Abdum
Nabi to Todar Mai. The latter's hostility clearly reveals
from Abdul Fazl's remakrs when he condemns Todar Mai for his
religious intolerance.2 Abdun Nabi was further humiliated
and imprisoned. One night a group of men murdered him in the
imprisonment and, according to Badayuni, his body was thrown
in the square of minarets where it lay for several hours.3

Akbar's hostility towards ulama and Islam did not stop
here. He went further Assasinations of Makhdum-ul-Mulk and
Sadr-us-Sudur paved the way for future activities. I.H.
Quraishi say; "The banishment of these two theologiens in
1580 was, in fact, the beginning of a large scale
prosecution of orthodox ulama who were not willing to toe

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, p.31}.

2. Akbar Nama, Volume III, p.223.

3. Badayuni, op.cit. . Vol.II,pp.311-12.

235

the official line."! Many prominent ulama were victimized
by suspending all grants of five hundred bighas or more.2
All the qazis . appointed before the time of Sultan Khwaja,

r

who was an active member of Din-i-Ilahi, were dismssed.^ The
department of Sadr lost its significance. The lands
earmarked for grants ran waste.4 Many u ^ama were banished
from their houses and sent into exile either to Mecca or to
distant places.5 Several leading scholars were secretly put
to death.^

Akbar went further in his persecution of Islam. His
hostility towards Islam and Muslim increased suddenly. It
appears that his association with Rajput families and the
views expressed by his Hindu wives had g^eat impression upon
him. They created a desire in him to find out the
comparative merits of Islamic and Hindu ideas. Dadayuni
inform us that many madaris , (Muslim religious schoools),and

1. Akbar , p.161.

2. Muntakha b -u t -Tawa r ikh ,

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid., p.343.

5. Ibid., pp.274, 277.

6. Ibid., p.277.

Vol.II,p.278.

23S

masajid, (mosques),. were obliterated and a large number of
religious minded Muslims left their native places.! Akbar
drove away many Shaikh and Fakirs out of Qandahar and
exchanged them for horses.2

Wine was allowed. Badayuni says, "For those addicted to

it (wine) a wine shop was opened at court under the

suprvision of a lady, the wife of the gate-keeper who is

*

descended from the line of drunkards, and a fixed price was
settled so that any one desiring wine for illness, many
dictate his name together with father's and grandfather's to
the clerk and then may take it. People under this pretence
gave r false names and took it. And the wine-shop was opened
for drunkards."^

Similarly even according to Badayuni the public prayers
(namaz-i-ba'jamat) and the azan, call for the prayer, which
were said five times in the court were abolished.^

1. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh , Vol.II, pp.274-75.

2. Ibid., p.299.

3. Badayuni, op.cit. . Vol.II, p.314.

. Ibid.

4

237

Not only this, the names like Ahmad, Muhammad, Mustafa
and others like these, in order to please the infidels out
side and their daughters inside the hayam were disliked. In
course of time, the names of some of the favourites who bore
such names, were changed. For example the names like yar
muhammad and Muhammad Khan were uttered and written as
Rahmat.l

Another anti-Islamic thing, which was introduced, was
that the dead body should be buried with head eastwards and
feet to the west. Akbar himself used Vo go to bed in this
manner. ^ Commenting upon it Vincent Smith wrightly says
that, "This rule appears to have been prescribed for general
compliance. It had the double purpose of honouring the
rising sun and offering and insult to Muhammadans who turn
towards Mecca which lies westward from India".- 1 2 3

1. Badayuni, op.cit. . Vol.II, p.314

2. Ibid.

3. Akbar the Great Moghul., p.158.

233

Besided, the tradition of having beard was very badly
treated and many distinguished persons in the Mughal court
very proudly shaved their beards. Badaygni says, "He (Akbar)
exhorted people to shave off their beards, and this custom
became current, and those who shaved tl^eir beards brought
fourth the argument that beard takes its nourishment from
testicles. Previously the pious persons considered the
keeping of beard as a sort of religious duty now that duty
lies in shaving it off and not in keeping it."*

^Further more, the ordinance of washing the whole body
after ceremonial uncleanness was put off absolutely. They
argued that the essence of humanity is the drop of semen
which is the root of the good and the pious; and what it
means to say that there is no need of bath after an emission
of human excrement and the emission of this tender thing
(drop of semen) wants no bath. The proper thing is that they
should first take bath and then co-habit,2

1* Mlltak hab-ut-Tawarikh . Vol.li, p.303,

2. The Religious Policy of Akbar . p.24.

\

?3 l J

Akbar also made it obligatory to use gold and silk
dresses at prayer time.* Namaz , rauza (tine fast of Ramazan)
and Ilaii were abolished long before thiu.^ The reading and
knowing of Arabic language was discouraged. The tafseer
(exegesis of Quran ), tradition# jurisprudence and their
reading became hateful and rejected. The sciences like
astrology, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, poetry,
history and short stories became current and necessary.^

The Emperor and his disciple ridiculed Islamic
doctrines. Badayuni says that Akbar, in this way, cast
doubts and laughed at every precept of religion and every
principle of Islam whether basic or secondary like
prophethood, scholastic theology (Kalanj), vision of God
( royat ), impositions (takleef), creations ( takween ) and
resurrection ( hashh-wa-nashr ) etc. If any one gave an answer
he was prohibited from doing so. All took part in this
discussion, rather a meeting for arrogance and defamation.

1• The Religious Policy of A kbar , p.24.
2. Ibid.

3.

Ibid.

The heretics ( din faroshan ) brought as present, exploded
errors from every quarter. For pampering the Emperor. Here
is an instance when Akbar ridiculed islamic beliefs in open
which touched the hearts of pious Muslims. One night,
addressing Birbal, Akbar noJd, "How can reason accept this
fact that a person with that weighty body can go towards
heaven from his bed in one minute and exchange ninety
thousand words with Almighty God and hie bed still remains
warm by the time ht£ returns, and people believe this." They

also considered as fake the integrity of the Quran and the

!

verbal authority of the same, as also such matters as the
perpetuity of the soul after the dissolution of the body,
and rewards and punishments, except by way of

r

transmigration, and they gave weight to 6uch phrases as,
"Truly the Quran remained in the hands of a few useless
ones. Grave speaks not to anyone; none speaks after the
secrets of the Quran . Festival ha3 come and things will
improve - like the face of the bride.

Akbar and his followers still did not stop their anti-
Islamic activities. They did every thing and even went out

1. The Religious Policy of Akbar., p.27.

2 41

of range in the opposition of Islam and Muslims. They were
not satisfied with only claiming the dignities and status of
Imam-i-Adil and 'mujtahid' for Akbar. Mow they declared
Akbar a prophet. Contemporary literature contains
innumerable instances of poets, scholars and courtiers
trying to invest Akbar with prophetic and even divine
attributes.1 It appears that Akbar liked and appreciated
this idea and did not stop people from such attempts.2
According to Abul Fazl he used to say that in India no one
had ever set himself up as a prophet because the pretensions
to divinity had suppressed it.3

No doubt, Abdul FAzl, who had greatest insight in the
mind of Akbar, prepared ground for his prophethood and
invested him at every turn of his life with some attributes
of the prophets. Moreover, other poets and writers,
especially among the royal circle, also followed the tone

1. Akbax and Religion , p.186.

2. Ibid., Vol.III, p.397.

3. Ain-i-Akbari . Vol.II, p.224.
Also, Akbar and Religion , p.186.

2 52

set by Abul Fazl. Not only this, they ascribed divine
attributes also to him. Now Akbar was not the 'shadow of
god' but 'God in human form'.l

4. Professor Nizami has given various poetic verses of
Kahi, Faizi and Rahai who represented three different
backgrounds and enjoyed great pleasure at the Mughal
court. These verses clearly reveal Akbar as a prophet
and God in human form. For details see, Akbar and
Religion , pp.187-9.

243

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi’s reaction:

This was the religious condition p£ Akbar's reign,
especially at his royal court. Though many ulama , sufis and
scholars flourished there and even enjoyed Akbar's closeness
and intimacy, none of them is reported tp have openly come
in his opposition. But, on the contrary, various sections
of Muslim scoiety outside the court reacted against his
religious experiment and ideology. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
deserves special mention in this regard. Sources say that he
was dissatisfied with the then religious condition. The
circumstances led him to great anxiety and distress.
Therefore, his reaction to Akbar's thought and activities
was most powerful and he openly criticised his attitude
towards Islam and Muslims.

As mentioned earlier. Shaikh Ahmad, on the completion
of his education, proceeded to Agra, the then royal capital,
and stayed there for several years in order to observe the
religious environment at the Mughal court. Due to his deep
understanding and insight into religious learnings - both
rational and traditional - and spiritual disposition he soon
became popular amongst the ulama, sufis and scholars of the
city. The nobles and grandees of the mughal empire were also
attracted towards him. We don't have any information whether

or not he ever came into contact with Akbar. However, his
works - rasail (treatises & brochurs) , and jnaktu bat
(epistles) - reveal clearly that he wan fully aware of the
personal religious outlook <>f the Emperor. His long stay at
the Mughal Capital, association with the top officials and
contact with the ulama and intellectual class had provided
Shaikh Ahmad with an opportunity to deeply understand the
socio-religious condition of the time. &11 his writings and
other sources - contemporary and later - as well as moder
works contain material in this regard, and present him as a
critical and severe opponent of Akbar's religious experiment
and ideology.

Shaikh Ahmad observed that many important personalities

and even the Emperor himself were impressed by the Greek

*

philosophers and thinkers, and convinced by their thought
and arguments. He witnessed that they denied the prophecy of
the Prophet of Islam and raised objections in this context.
Sirhindi found Akbar and his loyalists to be renouncing Wahi
(Divine revelation upon prophets),and discardng moii zat
(prophetic miracles). Shaikh Ahmad studied the wicked ideas
and came across impious views of these peopc of the royal
circle. He also came to know that Abul Fazl and others tried
to invest prophecy to Akbar by calling him God's prophet.

Having observed the Hindu dominance at the important
offices. Shaikh Ahmad also seriously noticed the increasing
influence of a particular (Muslim) sect, (Shias), and found
its followers openly preaching their religious ideas,
criticising the PRophet's wife, Aisha, his companions and
the first three pions Caliphs at the royal court.

Born and brought up in an orthodox family of Sirhind
Ahmad was well-versed in Islamic sciences, and fully knew
the rules and regulations which Islam recommends to run a
state. His attachment to the religion, love and respect for
the Prophet of Islam, his family, disqendants, companions
and the Pious Caliphs could not be questioned. As such it
was, therefore, imposible for him to keep silence at this
critical juncture. How could have he tolerated the anti-
Islamic ideology, laws against the commandments of Shariat .
or sayings and activities dishonouring the most
distinguished personality of the holy Prophet.

Analysing the situation. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi felt
that the kings, the u]ama and sufis were equally responsibJe
for creating this, lie looked upon the luJers as 'all soul'
and the people as 'all body'. According to him if the soul

246

goes wrong, the body is bound to go astry. The Shaikh
declared, "The Kings being on the right path means that the
world is on the right path; his waywardpess is waywardness
of the whole world." 1 2 He, therefore, tackled the situation
in a fundamental way by openly criticising Akbar's misguided
religious experiments and even his attempt to assume
religius leadership. He also felt that Akbar had violated
the basic value system of Islam and his experiments had
damaged and diluted the monotheistic character of Islamic
teachings. He was of the view that the realm of religion
should remain beyond the imperial jurisdiction.2

fr

So far as ulama and sufis were concerned. Shaikh Ahmad
also attacked these sections of the Muslim society with full
seriousness. He thought that Akbar's religious experiments
were also fed by the mystic ideology of Wahdat-ul-Wuiud
which, when indiscriminately applied to situation, weakened
the distinctive features of faiths and cheated an atmosphere

1. Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani . Vol. I, Letter No. 47.

2. Ibid.

24 ?

of moral holiday.1 He, therefore, enunciated a counter
theory known as Wahdat-ul-Shuhud and defined the mystic
concepts pertaining to Ml, (state), and magamat ,
(stations), in the light of Qu ran and Sunnah. He a)so
criticised the role of ulama , especially 'ulama-i-su' whom
he considered responsible for the then religious condition,
and felt that the Muslim society of his day was sunk in
bid'at . He was of the opinion that no progress, individual
or collective, was possible without cJoseJy foliowing the
path indicated by the Prophet.^ Though he supported giyas ,
(personal judgement in matter relating to religions
problem), and iitihad (interpretation Qf Islamic laws) , but
he was opposed to introducing herecies under the garb of
fresh interpretation. Within the framework of the Quran and
the Sunnah Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was prepared to give any
amount of liberty, but outside it non. Profssor Nizami says
that he believed that mystic faith in pantheistic
philosophy, negligence of Shariat law by the ulama . and
emphasis on the interiorization of religious rites to the
exclusion of formal adherence to law had weaked the

1. Akbar and Religion . p.262.

2. Ibid ., p.263.

moral fibre of the community and debilitated the structure
of fath. 1 The Shaikh, therefore, came forward and decided to
banish from the royal circle all activities and ideologies
which Islam forbade. His reaction to Akbar's religious
experiments resulted step by step, and pt every moment he
did not deviated from the Quran and Hadij;h .

Discussion with Faizi and Abul Fazl:

Shaikh Ahmad, therefore, came forward and initiatly
held discussion with the eminent persons who apart from
holding the key position in the government, claimed
themselves well-versed in rational sciences. The Zubdat-ul-
Maaamat , as mentioned earlier, tells us that the Shaikh used
to visit Abul Fazl Faizi and other scholarly nobles and

discussed with them many important themes of the Quran .

Hadith , philosophy, jurisprudence and sufifem etc. 2 The saint
himself soys that ho held polemics with those who had gone
astray as far as their beliefs and religious ideas were

concerned, and tried to bring them back to the path of the

Quran and the Suqt^Ji* 3

1. Akbar and Religion . p.264.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.131.

3. Ithba t-un-Nubu wwat , Karachi, 1963, pp.0-9

moral fibre of the community and debilitated the structure
of fath.l The Shaikh, therefore, came forward and decided to
banish from the royal circle all activities and ideologies
which Islam forbade. His 1 reaction to Akbar's religious
experiments resulted step by step, and at every moment he
did not deviated from the Quran and Hadj , th .

Discussion with Faizi and Abul Fazl:

Shaikh Ahmad, therefore, came forward and initiatly
held discussion with the eminent persons who apart from
holding the key position in the <|Overnment, claimed
themselves well-versed in rational sciences. The Zubdat-ul-
Magamat , as mentioned earlier, tells us that the Shaikh used
to visit Abul Fazl Faizi and other scholarly nobles and

discussed with them many important themes of the Qufan ,

Hadith . philosophy, jurisprudence and sqfism etc.2 The saint
himself says that he held polemics with those who had gone
astray as far as their beliefs and religious ideas were

concerned, and tried to bring them back to the path of the

Quran and the Sunnah .3

1. Akbar and Religion , p.264.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p.131.

3. Ithbat-un-Nubuwwat . Karachi, 1963, pp.8-9

Compilation of Ithbat-un-Nabuwwats

Afterwards, still at Agra, he wrote an Arabic treatise
Ithbat-un-Nabuwwat L -*• wich, according to Friedmann, gives
arguments to necessity of prophecy j.n general and the
Prophecy of the Prophet of Islam in particular. 1 2 The opening
part, preface, of the brochure throws light on the
circumstances which led Ahmad sirhindi to its compilation.
It also discusses the religious condition of Akbar's court
and throws light on his and his nobles beliefs, Sirhindi
say, "I observed the defects and the weaknesses in the
beliefs of some of the people of the time regarding the
prophethood, escpecially of the Prophet of Islam; and I
found, with certainty and evidence, £ particular person
(Akbar) to be claiming himself a prophet; and I came across
the changes and irregularities in his conduct about the
prescribed condition of prophethood; and I saw these
things, with certain facts, to be infiltrating amongst the
common people. A large number of uJLamoi our time were
tortured on account of their firm belief in the stead fast

1. See supra p. (cfhapter II, P.36)

2. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, p.5.

prophets ( mursalin ) and the strict following of the Shariat ♦
Many of them were executed and murdered. The situation was
so worst that it was given up in the royal society to
oopenly speak (tasreeh) the name of the Prophet of Islam,
the last of the chain of the prophets. And those, whose
names were as Muhammad and Ahmad, changed their names. The
cow slaughtering, which had been one of the important
symbols of the practices of Islam in India, was declared
prohibited. The mosques and the tombs of the Muslims were
ruined and demolished. The places of worship of the infidels
wer paid great reverence and their important festivals were
celebrated with full honour and respect,

"In short, the symbols and customs of Islam were
declared false and useless; and the rites and rituals of the
infidels and their (false) religions were publicly
introduced. The rules and regulations of the infidels of
India (Hindus) were brought to light, and translated, from
their own languages, into Persian so that all the
impressions of Islam in India could be destroyed. I realized
that the illness of doubt and denial is widespread, and even
those, who could be expected to make reforms, indulged in
such maladies. The people came near to destruction.

"I made inquiries of the individual's beliefs, looked
into their doubts and misapprehension (about Islam and
Islamic laws), and examined their feelings as well as secret
notions. I discovered that their deviation from Islam and
its beliefs is due to long distance from the time of the
Holy Prophet, their keen interest in philosophy and the
studies of the works of the Indian (non-Muslim) scholars.

"I, therefor^, engaged me in polemics with some of
those people who claimed themselves to be wellversed in
philosophy and the works of the infidels and were misleading
innocent Musalmans. I came across the result that they had
gone astray on account of their misbeliefs in the Quranic

ft

r

concept of prophethood and their hypothesis of the prophecy
of a particular person (Akbar). They had gone to the extent
of believing that oniy wisdom and sagacity were the main
objects of prophethood. According to them a prophet's advent
does not mean any other thing than to jeform the outward
condition of the people, provide the freedom of desires and
the lust, and keep them away from the mutual differences.
They also used to say that prophecy had |io concern with the
'Ultimate salvation ( naiat-i-Ukhravi ) but it is an output of

such merits and virtues of the civilized moral ( tahzeeb-j-
Ikhlag ) and sincere acts ( a'mal-i-Qalbj ) as the philosophers

f

had described and discussed it in their works. Sometimes/
they quote Ghazzali and say that he too, like other
philosophers, has devided his 1 Ihva'-yl-Ulum-id-Din into
four parts and given preference to the moral acts rather
the prayers like namaz and the fast of Ramazan . They
maintain that the physical prayers are of no use to get
salvation, and, accordingly, a prophet's mission and
teachings cannot be enforced upon and practiced by the
person born after a long duration of his (the prophets)
time ".1

This was the condition which prevailed at the Mughal
Court at that time. Continuing the discussion Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi now presents his own arguments. He says, "According
to Divine Mysteries and Favours (Hikma t-i-Az al iya and

Inayat-i-Ilahiyay l', the perfection of human soul and

treatment of the inward diseases of individuals are the main
purposes of the advent of and the task to be fulfiled by a
prophet. In order to carry on his prophetic mission

1. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Ithba t -un-Nabuww at. (Edited and
translated in Urdu, with the Arabic text, by Ghulam
Mustafa Khan), Karachi, 1383 A.H. (1^63 A.D.), pp.5-7.

successfully, a prophet has to necessarily warn his enemies
and announce good news (of the hereafter) to his followers
and believers. He has also to inform human beings of their
ultimate rewards and punishment. As the desires and the
wordly things easily surmount and attract human being, he is
very much supposed to committ sins and the worthless acts.
If the human soul is perfect, it leads him to the happiness
and salvation in this world as well as in the world
hereafter. That is why a prophets mission is to invite human
being to the 'Eternal Happiness' and the 'Ultimate
Salvation' because the wordly fortunes are less and worst

Now Sirhindi refutes the philosophers' views and
condemns their works. He is of the opinion that the
philosophers, especially those of Greece, with a view to
introduce their absurd thought and false ideas in the
human world, have amalgated with them (their views) the
learnings and the sciences of different prophets and their
companions. So for as the area of these prophetic learnings
and science is concerned, they include the 'Description of
the Refined Manners ( bavan-i-tahzeeb-i-Ikhlaq 1 ) and the

1. Ithabat-un-Nabuwwat , p.7.

'Good Esoteric Deeds etc. 1 They popularized these
disciplines as their own inventions.1

Prolonging his discussion Shaikh Ahmad Sirliindi now
turns his attention to Akbar and his supporters', especially
Abul Fazl's view t^iat 'on account of a long distance of time
from the Prophet of Islam's period nobody can be satisfied
in maintaining his faith in hi (the Prophet of Islam).

r

Commenting upon this view, the Shaikh questions as to how
they came to know about 'Galen' and iSobayah' as eminent

r

physician and Arabic graminarian respectively whereas they
have not seen these scholars due to a long distance of time
between themselves and those learned men. According to

Sirhindi if they (Akbar and his supporters) respond that

they have studied the learned works of those thinkers and
found out their views as well as their description as
physician and grammerian in other books of these
disciplines, he (Sirhindi) too would advise these people to
deeply consider the £uj;pni£ conception and injunctions and
the traditions of the Holy Prophet so that they may

adequately understand the aims ar^d objects of the

1. Ithbat-un-Nabuwwat . P.7

255

Prophethood. If they do so, they will surely come to the
conclusion that the Prophet of Islam is the most superior
amongst all the prophets; and the distance of time is not at
all an obstacle ft i this way as it is in cose of Galen and
Sabiyah. Shaikh Ahmad argues, "As all the sayings and the
actions of the Prophet of Islam informs us that the
perfection of human soul, both in doctrinal as well as
practical spheres, takes place through the good actions and

c

the correct faith and removes the deseases and the darkness
of the heart, it is, therefore, obvious that the prophetbood
is exactly but according to his (Prophet of Islam's)
sayings.

In the concluding remarks of the 'preface the' Shaikh
says that when he observed and analysed the religious

. i

condition at the Mughal Court, he thought it necessary to
write this treatise, the Ithbat-un-Nabuywat . which comprises
an introduction and two chapters. All the arguments in it
are based on the Quranic verses, the Prophet's traditions
and the works of eminent Muslim divines.2 Really the
attribution of prophecy to Emperor Akbar or any other person

1. Ithbat-un-Nabuwwat . pp.8-9.

2. Ibid ., p.9.

25 ?

was an act of great anxiety for the Muslims in India in
those days. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi stood up in time and,
despite great difficulties, took steps in this regard. A31
his arguments have been represented with authentic and
reasonable evidences. If he had not realized his duties as
an ardent Muslim divine, of course, the history of Islam in
India would have taken an entirely different shape. Shaikh
Muhammad Ikram says that the Ithbut-un-}labuwwat is a highly
advanced analysis of an important aspect of Islam and
Muslims. Cirliindi's argumentations not only convince
Musalmans but, to great extent, are Incontrovertible and
significant for non-Muslims as well.l

Radd-i-Rawafiz: As mentioned earlier. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
also observed the Shia Muslims and found them to be rapidly
influencing the Mughal Court and attracting eminent
personalities to their own sect. II<* considered the.it
increasing domination, over the royal circle, a greater
danger to Sunnis and their sect. Shias, at the royal court,
openly crticised Sunnis and passed strictures upon the
Prophet's companions.2 in the meantime when Abdullah Khan

1. Shaikh Muhammad Ikram, Rud-i-Kausar (Reprint), Delhi
1987, p.231.

2. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Radd-i-Rawafiz . pp.8-9.

Uzbek, the ruler of Central Asia/ captured Mashhad in Iran,
there arose severe differences amongst the Sunni and Shia
ulama. The latters produced a brochure against Sunnis and
their religion. It is said that Abdullah Khan Uzbek had
ordered to burn it publicly after cutting out from it the
verses of the holy Quran . Later on, the brochure was brought
to India and introduced to Akbar's court by some Shia
students. They circulated and propagated it among the
nobles and the Emperor.^ In those very d^ys Ahmad Sirhindi
also received a copy of it. After studying it he wrote
another treatise, Radd-i-R a wafiz , by refuting the Shia sect
and its religious doctrines. The author of Zubdat-ul-Maaamat
also says that the Radd-i-Rawafiz was written when Shias
held positions in the MughaJ court and the capita] , and were
very much closed to Akbar. The latter had great enmity with
Islam and its followers. Nevertheless, the Shaikh did not
care any thing on account of his attachment to Islam.2
Describing the circumstances which led him to the
compilation of the brochure. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi says that
to all intents and purposes

1. Radd-i-Rawafiz . p.7.

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.131.

253

the treatise of the Shia ulama condemned the first three
Pious Caliphs as infidels and reproached and slandered
Aisha. Its contents were a matter of great pride to the
assembly of nobles and princess. The Shaikh adds that he
would refute these Shias in the gatherings he attended.
Furthermore# he straight way took to writing a treatise for
the benefit of all class of people and named it Radd-i-
Rawafiz.

The treatise starts with a very brief description of
the advent and development of Islam in India. According to
Shaikh Ahmad it was the main cause of the rapid spread of
Islam in this country was that almost all Muslims strictly
and staunchly followed the Sunni path and believed in
Hanafite school of Islamic juriprudence. * Afterwards, the
Shaikh turns to the arrival of Shias in India and says,
"During the reign of Abdullah Khan tfzbek many powerful
Shias, who had created disturbances in Iran and Khurasan,
were punished to death. Many of them migrated to India and
made contacts with the rulers and nobles by leading them
into error. Ttfon Sirhindi says that the shias consider

1. Radd-i-Rawafiz , p.6.

2. Ibid ., p.7.

Ali, the four.th Pious Caliph, the ricjhtious Imam after the
Holy Prophet Islam** They believe that the Ima mot is confined
to Ali and hie descendantr; onJy. If any other person claims
to hold this religious position, he does so because of his
own tyranny of Ali and his descendants or on account of
their pious fraud, taaaivvah. ^ Now Shaikh Ahmad throws light
on the twenty two obscure Shia sects, describes their
beliefs, ideology and mutual differences. According to him
their internecine war was the principal source of their
destruction.2 The transmigration of soul which was a taboo
with Muslims was commonly held by these Shia sects.3

Referring to the polemics surrounding the statement
that the orders and actions of the Holy Prophet enjoyed the
status of Divine Revelation, the Shaikh Pleaded that it was
not true without qualifications. The t afsir-i-Daizawi has
made the point clear. Had all the words of the Prophet
enjoyed the status of Divine Revelation, Allah would not
have from time to time, warned him to correct himself. In

1. Radd-i-Rawafiz . p.8.

2. Ibid ., p.9.

3. Ibid ., p.19.

rational matters and on problem of iitih ad, the Prophet's
companions were entitled to differ from him. The Prophet of
Islam himself did not pay much attention to the rational
matters. The suggestion of Umar, the second Pious Caliph,
regarding the action against the prisoners of Badr was
endorsed by the Divine Revelation. Consequently the
Prophet's order to bring the paper or fo march under the
command of Usama or to expel Marwan from Madina were not
identical to Divine Revelotion but were based on his own
opinion and iitihad. 1

Referring to the Shia allegations regarding the
unreliability, of the Sunni ahadith, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
says that the SJhias dispute the correct Sunni ahadith
v/ithout any reason and distort thorn. They even mutilate the
Quran and accuse the third Pious Caliph, Usman, of
excluding the Quranic versos that enlogised the Ahl-i-Bait,
the family of the Prophet of Islam, and permitted the
concoction of evidence in support of their statements.
Consequently their works were garbled like the book of Moses
and the Christian gospels. Their allegations against Sunni

1. Radd-i-Rawafiz . pp.40-50

works were designed to defend their own inventions and
fabrications. Although the Sunni ahadjth enlogising the
companions of the Prophet were literally ahad, the
innumerable repetitions have bestowed on them the position
of mutawatir . Referring to the end of the Caliphs the Shaikh
wrote that the ahadith enlogising them guaranteed their
glorious end. So far as annoying Fatijna, the Prophet's
daughter, was concerned A]i also sometimes annoyed Fatima.
The Prophet intended to discourage people from annoying
Fatima for their selfish ends. She was annoyed with abu
Bakr because of the adverse judgement delivered by him
against Fatima's claim of Fadak, a garden near Madina which
the Iloly Prophet had left in his inheritage. Neverthless, it
was based on the Prophet's hadith. She was annoyed because
of human passions. Referring to Joseph's compinion in
prison, the Shaikh wrote that two idolaters embraced Islam
because of the blessings of Joseph's company. The impact of
the Prophet's company on the first three Pious Caliphs was
far reaching and the same was confirmed by the Quranic
verses. The Shi' i pJ^tn that the paucity qf followers and the
fear of distruction of righteous people prevented Ali from
fighting for his right is a clear proof qf Ali's bay'at with
Abu Bakr. As pointed out by the ulama of Transoxiana Ali's

bay 1 at with Abu Bakr justified the letter's Caliphate. Since
the Shias were unable to defend Ali's bavat with Abu Bakr
they invented that story that Ali reluctantly made bayat or
some of them think that Ali performed yaoiyya . Although Mu'a
wiya was exceedingly powerful Ali fought agcunst him for his
right. Neither did he nor did Abbas, the Prophet's uncle f
however, take the same .step against Abu Bakr.

Although some Sunni ulama did not consider the Shias as
infidels, the Shias are infidels because they cursed Aisha
and accused her of violating the following verse of the
Quran

*

"And stay in your houses. Bedizen not yourselves with
the bedizenment of the Time of Ignorance". (The Holy Quran,
XXXIII, 33)/ The command in the above verse, according to
Shaikh Ahmad, is not universal. The exceptions were made
even in the Prophet's time when some of his wives
accompanied him to his travels. Aisha's war against Ali was
designed to meet certain useful ends. Since she was endowed
with the power of j jtihad , her judgement to fight against
Ali could not be questioned. The Shaikh quoted the
traditions from the Sunni authorities to show that the
Prophet had forewarned Ali of the emergence of sect known as

254

Rawafiz who would exeggerate his; (AJi's) achievements and
revile his (the prophet's) companions. God and angels would
be of no avail to them, those who bore malice towards the
first two caliph or annoyed them equally bore malice against
him (the Prophet). As the Shias annoyed him (the Prophet),,
the annoyed God. The opinion of the Sunni scholars, who do
not consider Shiag. as jnfedels, should he glossed over. At
last Ahmad Sirhindi urged the Muslims to leave the disputes
that took place between the Prophet's companions to God and
remember them respectfully. According to him, it was non of
the business of Muslims to interfere with the dispute of the
Prophet's companions.*

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi's reaction against Akbar's
religious experiments did not stop here. After joining the
Naqshbandi silsilah and receiving the khilafat drom Khwaja
Baqi Billah, especially after the latter's death in 1012
A.H./1603, as his chief successor, Shaikh Ahmad had acquired
great fame and important place amongst the religious circle
of northern India. The Khwaja himself, in his life time, had
placed him on the highest position amongst his own
disciples. As mentioned earlier, Sirhindi had already come,

1. Radd-i-Rawafiz , pp.56-73.

255

during the long stay at Agra in his youth, into contact with
many important nobles of Akbar's court. The joining of the
Khwaja's discipline gave new energy and direction to his

acquaintance with those officials as they held Baqi Billah

%

jn high esteem, visited him frequently and obtained his
spiritual blessings. They had helped the saint immensely in
consolidating his position in Delhi. If on one hand, these
nobles, having right perspective of and proper place for
Islam, the Prophet of Islam and the Shariat in their minds
and hearts, had not yet accepted and even been influenced by
Akbar's innovations, on the other, they still had strong
position in the court and the Emperor himself regarded them
very much. Despite having complete authority in various sufi
order, the Shaikh, at that time, did not lead a quiet and
passive life. In this connection he followed his spiritual
ancestor Khwaja Obaidullah Ahrar and more willingly decided
to continue his efforts against the heritical trends of the
royal society. The Shaikh, realizing the situation, did not
let the opportunity slip. He, therefore, tried to preach the
teachings of Islam systematically through the nobles and
grandees of the Imperial court as he considered them the
best way of persuading the Emperor to Isjam and its laws. lie
started correspondence with them by recalling what had been

forgotten end bringing home the significance of the Shar.iat,
to them. The first volume of his m aktubat contains some
3otters, addressed to important nobles, which seem to have
been written in the reign of emperor Akbaf. Initially these
letters were sent to Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Qulich Khan,
Khwaja Jahan and Murtuza Khan ( Shaikh Fapid Bukhari). These
letters bemoan the sad state into which Ijp3am had fa3 3en in
India during the reign of Akbar and remind the nob3es of
their religious duties. These also throw va3uable 3ight on
Shariat and its implementation on human society. In the
words of Shaikh Ikram, "The rhetoric and appeal of these
letters kindled a religious fervor which, although it took
some time to bear fruit, profouudly affected the history of
Islam in India by strengthening the position of the orthodox
in place of power."•*- It shou3d not be presumed by going
through there epistles that Sirhindi had no intention to
persuade the Monarch. As just to3d, he was of the opinion
that if those nobles became perfect Muslims both in be3iefs
and practices, they cou3d easily advocate the cause of
Islam before the Emperor and influence his deeds and
thoughts. And, of ourse, influenced by Shaikh Ahmad

1. S.M. Ikram, Mulim Civilization in India , New
York/London, p.160.

267

Sirhindi's thought, these nobles exerted great influence
upon Akbar and even pressurized him to turn to Islam. "No
serious student of^history," says Professor, Nizami, "Can
evade the conclusion that in the later years of Akbar's
reign, under the influence of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, a
definite ideological cleavage had developed between Akbar
and his nobles.

V

0

1. State and Culture in Medieval India # P. 166.

(This conclusion is supported by Jahangir himself who
remarks that during his princehood before and during the
illness of his father, the opinion of nobles and
courtiers had changed).

CHAPTER—VII

RELATION WITH JAHANGIR AND THE MUGHAL NOBLES

25 S

CHAPTER VII

RELATIONS WITH JAHANGIR AND THE MUGHAL NOBLES

The question of making contacts w^Lth the rulers and

officials or participation in the politics has been

controversial among the different sufi-silsilahs. However,

some of them, since the foundation of Muslim rule in India,

not only made contacts with the contemporary rulers and the

nobles but also participated in the contemporary politics.

The Naqshbandi silsilah is the first to have played an

important part in the-political awakening of the Muslims in

,

medieval India. 1 Professor Nizami sayp, "The Naqshbandi
silsilah alone considered it not on^y permissible but
imperative to establish contact with the rulers, and to
attempt to influence their thought and policies. "2 shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi; therefore, could not keep himself aloof from
the affairs of the state in his life-time. He had deep
interest and even deeply involved himself in the
contemporary Mughal politics. He considered politics, in the

1. For details, see, K.A. Nizami, State and Culture in
Medieval India . Delhi, 1985, pp.158-163.

2 .

Ibid, p.158

light of Quran and sunnah, inseparable from the religion;^
and like his central Asian Naqshbandi predecessors,
particularly Khwaja Obaidullah Ahrar,^ the Shaikh was of the
opinion that the ruler in relation to his subjects is like
the heart in relation to the body; if the heart is healthy,
the body is healthy, and if the heart is sick, the body too

ft

is sick. Similarly ’the rectitude of tl^e people depends upon
the rectitude of the ruler; and his corruption amounts to
the corruption of the people.'3

The main political role of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi lies
in his persuading eminent nobles and grpndees of the Mughal
empire to make efforts for the cause of Islam in India sub¬
continent. He turned to those personalities in order to
bring about a change in the atmosphere and continued his
correspondence with them even after the accession of
Jahangir by exhorting them to stop religious vagaries and
experiments at the royal court which was the real centre of

1. For the details of Islamic conception of politics, see,

Al-Ghazali, Inva-ul Ulum-id-Din , Cairo, 1939, Vol. II,
pp.140-54, (Englihs translation by Fazlul Kareem,
Delhi , 1982, p.) .

2. For the religio-political ideology of Khwaja Obaidullah
Abrar, see, Eashahat-i-Ain-ul-Havat , pp.208-9.

3

Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani . Vol.I, Letters, 47, 67.

270

such activities. 1 According to Shaikh Ahmad the main
responsibility of the nobles (Umara) lied in advising the
Emperor to strictly follow the laws of Islam. He called this
duty of the nobles 'jihad-i-qauli' or oral war, and
considered it the greatest jihad (holy war) of his days. 2
In fact, he used these nobles as his main instrument in

1. Professor Mujeeb criticises Shaikh Ahmad's manner in
which he exhorted the Mughal nobies for the implementa¬
tion of Shariat laws. In this connection his views are
entirely wonderful. He is of the opinion that Shaikh
Ahmad's appeal to these nobles reduced the importance
of the Shariat . He says, "Shaikh Ahmad's attitude
towards the court and the courtiers was typically
orthodox. He believed that the power of the state was
essential for the maintenance of the Shariah, and urged
its use for that purpose. He had no personal motives,
perhaps, other than than the desire for recognition,
but his letters to the nobility do pot show any of that
dignity of spirit which distinguished the independent

. ulama . It was necessary, no doubt, to use certain
forms of address, and to praise nojplemen at the right
time and for the right things. But quite often his
praise borders on flattery, and ope'has the feeling
that the convessing he did for the Shariah reduced it
to the level of a mundane interest*’. (See, The Indian
Muslims . London 1969, p.247). But this not correct.
Shaikh Ahmad did not want any recognition or fame
either as alim or as a sufi. It is also baseless to say
that his attitude towards the nobles shows flattery.
His letters clearly reveal his sympathy and sincerity
in his mission. He was not a time server, as
Prof.Mujeeb thinks, but a sincere follower of Islam.
He knew that if he did not come fojrward and took the
pain over the crisis, which Islam and Muslims were
facing in those days, the cause of the implementation
of the Shariat laws could not be fuffiled. In fact, his
letters brought the Mughal nobles near to Islam and,
promoted the importance of the Sharjat .

2. Maktubat, Vol. I, Letter No.65.

o

71

creating Islamic environment at the Mughal court. As
discussed earlier, his letters exherted influence on Shaikh
Farid Bukhari and others, played an important part in
keeping them constant devotees of Islam, and moulded them to
restore and protect the Shariat, the laws of Islam.

Shaikh Ahmad's relations with Jahangir appear first of
all in his (Prince Saleem's) accession to the throne of the
Mughal empire. Professor Nizami maintains that one is
constrained to conclude that Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and
others of his school of thought did play some part in the
accession of Jahangir. ^ Actually he activated some Mughal,
nobles on this occasion. The most important personality
behind the event of Jahangir's accession was Saiyid Murtuza
Khan, better known as Shaikh Farid Bukhari. It is this very
Shaikh Farid to whom a large number of Shaikh Ahmad's
maktubat are addussed; and one gets quite a clear impression
that the saint looked upon the Shaikh (Farid Bukhari) as an
ardent supporter of Islam. 2 it is alleged that when Saleem

1. State and Culture in Medieval IndjLa, p.168.

2. Quraishi, Akbar , p.260.

N.B.: Irfan Habib's objections in this regard are

not correct. He doubts the friendship of Shaikh Ahmad
and Farid Bukhari, and considers it 'the story
advanced in the hagiology of the Shaikh's later
disciples and by his modern admirers. Habib has raised
certain points in this connection, such as: "Did
Shaikh Ahmad enjoy any influence over Shaikh Farid?
"Did Shaikh Farid ever take Shaikh Ahmad's advice?"

contd...

272

finally came away from Allahabad, he was escorted to the

f.note contd. from prev.

"There is no proof that Shaikh Farid leoejvcd Shaikh
Ahmed's 3 atte r at a33 , or, at Jtfft in the form we
have them now" Habib further says that 'it seems very
difficult to believe that such a high official of the
empire would have dared to entertain letters which
spoke in abusive terms of the reigning King's father'.
(See "The Political Role of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and
Shah Waliu31ah", Proceedings of the Indian History
Congress, Twenty Third (Aligarh) Session, 1960, Part
I, Calcutta 1961, pp.212-13).

Professor Habib's opinion is pot based upon the
detailed and thorough study of the Maktuba t -i-Imam-i-
Pabbani . He seems to have formed j he idea on.ly after
easily going through tie English \ r < ns!atjon of few
epistles, The cent 3ct r me! vein of \ he Shaikhs Ahmad's
letters, and even the letters of Khwaja Baqi Billah,
clearly reveals the freindship and intimacy between
Sirhindi and Shaikh Farid. The theme and nature of the
maktubat show that Shaikh Ahmad enjoyed full
confidence of Shaikh Farid with a considerable
influence on him. Many of his letters show 4hat Shaikh
Farid, at least sometimes, if no|: always, took the
saints advice for the affairs of state.

So far as the question of receivinn r-he maktu bat
of Shaikh Ahmad by Shaikh Farid is concerned, these
letters themselves provide information in this
connection. It clearly appears that Shaikh Farid did
receive letters from Shaikh Ahmad and had acknowledged
them directly or indirectly. There is no negative
evidence to prove that Shaikh FarJ,d did not receive
Shaikh Ahmad's letters at all. Various letters of the
Shaikh were sent to Shaikh Farid in his reply,
expecially letters no.44, 45, 47, 48, 52, 54 and 233
of the first volume of the maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani .
Rejecting this view of Irfan Habib, Friedmann says,
"This view is questionable. Shaykh Farid Bukhari
wrote to Sirhindi at least three t^mes and it is clear
that the correspondence was not unilateral. That he
was not fearful’ to maintain contact with Sirhindi is
clear from** his material support for Sirhindi's
khanoah . (See, Shaykh Ahmad Sirhind i. p.81, f.n.26).

imperial audiancc by Shaikh Farid Bukhaii. When the nobler;
were divided on the issue of the succession, it was Murtuzia
Khan (Shaikh Farid) who rallied the Saiyid of Baraha to
Saleem's support. It should be borne ,in mind in this
connection that before making his accession certain, Saleem
was asked to promise that he would protect Islam and revoke
any regulation or measure that had been introduced in its
contravention. Most of the modern historian accept Shaikh
Farid's hand in Jahangir's accession, and even agree with
the opinion that he (Shaikh Farid) took a promise from
Saleem to defend Islam.However, a critic of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi does not see eye to eye with them. He says that
this view seems to have its genesis apparently in the
statement of the Jesuits.2 But contrary to this view of the
Shaikh's critic, the maktubat-i-Iman-i-Rabbani show that
there had been previous consultations and that mutual
understanding had been reached between Ahmmad Sirhindi and
Shaikh Farid, and also between Shaikh Farid and Prince
Saleem Shaikh Ahmad could not have written to such a high

1. See for example, Quraishi, Akbar . pp.259-60,

R.P. Tripathi. Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire ,
Allahabad 1985, p.340, Beni Prasad, History of Jahan-
gjr , Allahabad 1962, pp.66-67.

2. Sec, Musli m Revi valist Movement in Northern Indi a,
p.217. (Irfan Habib also thinks in the same way, see,
Proceedings of the IHC, 1960, p.2J3).

27 “

dignitary of the empire in such a frank mood unless he hod
found his ideas receptive. It may be noted in this

connection that Shaikh Ahmad himself, in his letter,

%

mentions Jahangir as 'Padr.hah-i-Islam' , the king of IrQain.*
This clearly reveals that there had been some expectations
among the saint and his followers, from the new king for the
implementation of the Shariat laws. Shaikh Ahmad writes,

"Today, when the happy news of the rj.se of the Islamic

Kingdom and the accession of the King of Islam reached the
ears of every high and low, the followers of Islam
considered it obligatory to extend their help and assistance
to him, and guide him in promulgating the Shariat, and in
strengthening the faith."2 This also reveals that Jahangir
had certainly promised shaikh Farid Bukhari to protect Islam
and patronize its followers as a price for the royal throne.
It also appears from this letter that Shaikh Farid conveyed

information of political development in the royal court to

Shaikh Ahmad. Accordingly, he must have sent the news of
Jahangir's accession as well as his promise to support Islam
and Muslims to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. The latter's praise of
the new king, Jahangir, also supports this view. Otherwise,

1. Maktubat , Vol. I, Letter No.47.

2. Ibid.

275

Shaikh Ahmad would not have mention Jahangir as the king of
Islam and expressed jubilation on his accession to the
throne. The letter shows that he was well-informed of the
whole circumstances. Moreover, he advised Shaikh Farid and
at least on one occasion offers his own services to help and
assist Jahangir in the task of the propagation of Islam as
well as the implementation of the Sbariat laws. These things
also indicate that Shaikh Farid must have taken a promise
from Jahangir, before his accession to the throne, to
protect Islam in the Mughal empire.

It is generally stated by some itjodern scholars that
Jahangir never showed any inclination towards orthodoxy.^
But it is not absoJutcly correct. There are several
evidences, even in his own tuzuk, which reveal his
inclination towards the orthodoxy. He ha<3 great respect for
Islam in his heart.2 His firm belief in God appears
evidently when he says, "I am hopeful that the whole period
of my life will be passed in pleasing God, and even a single

1. See, Muslim Reviva list Movement, pp.219, 222. Rizvi

also goes to the extent of saying that Jahangir had
never shown any inclination towards the Sunni ortho¬
doxy .

2. Muhammad Miyan, Ulama-i-Hind ka Shandar Mazi . Vol. I,
Delhi, 1985, p.91.

movement will not be passed without His remembrance.^-
Whenever Jahangir heared the news of the success of his army
in any campaign, he immediately rendered thankfulness to God
by making a prostration before Him.^ He held polemics with
Hindu scholars, ^ permitted congregational prayer at the

1. Tuzuk-i-Jahanairi . p.225.

2. Describing an event of such kind ■ Jahangir writes,
"When the happy tidings of this great victory was
conveyed to this humble servant of God at Agra, he
immediately made a prostration as a token of submis¬
sion to Him, and considered this victory nothing but
His grace and mercy". ( Tuzuk . 105),

During the very first year of his reign he held a
polemic with some Hindu scholars and defeated them by
teaching them a lesson that how their idols could work
as mediation between them and God (see Ibid, p.15).

3 .

277

royal court-* and even did not like idol-worship. ^ Moreover,
there are many other examples which throw light on

** o

Jahangir's inclination towards Islamic orthodoxy.- 3 He is

1. Akbar had prohibited the congregation of namaz at the
royal court and the prayer mats had been removed. But
it was Jahangir who again arranged the prayer carpets,
made of the skin of deers hunted in the royal hunting
expedition, so that people could offer namaz on them

-at the royal court. ( Tuzuk , p.100).

In this connection Maulana Muhajnmad Miyan's opin¬
ion that Jahangir might have preferred the skin of
deers for the purpose of the prayer carpets with the
intention to avoid the use of the material purchased
and prepared by spending the money obtained through
the taxes of non-Islamic nature, seems convincing.
(See, Ulama-i-Hind ka Shandar Mazi , Vol. I, p.92.)

2. Once, during his stay at Ajmer, he visited the tempie
of Rama Shankar. Jahangir found there an idol, made of
the black-stone. Its head was like that of a pig, and
rest of the body resembled the human body. Jahangir
says, "It is the false belief of Hindus that God
(may He forbid me), at any time, due to any reason,
had appeared in this form. This is because they love
and worship it. I ordered to destroy the idol and to
throw it in the tank”. ( Tuzuk . p.125).

3. It was Jahangir who gave up the tradition of tilak . a
mark made by Hindus on their foreheads, introduced by
Akbar. He not only avoided himself to follow this
custom but took steps to get it banishad. It is stated
that at Govindwal, there was a Hindu priest whose name
was Arjun. He had attracted many of his co¬
religionists to his fold. Even a number of ignorant
Muslims are reported to have been faithful to him and
visited his house. The priest also attracted Khusro,
Jahangir's son, and fixed the mark of ti lak on his
forehead. On hearing this, Jahangir took prompt action
by awarding him sentence and forfeited his whole
property. (See, Ulama-i-Hind-k a Sha n dar Mazi , Vol. I,
P.93).

Likewise, describing the events of his fifth
regnal year, Jahangir writes in the tuzuk . "It was

contd..

375

said to

have exempted

’Mir Adi* and

the

’Qzis'

of

the

empire,

only with the

intention

of

the

honour

of

the

Shariat,

from making

prostation

before

the

Empe

ror. 1

Besides, according 0 to Shaikh Ahmad's maRtubat, he (Jahangir)
ordained Farid Bukhari to find ulama for his court to advise
him in religious matters.2 if he had not been inclined
towards the orthodoxy, he would not hve desired the four

f.note contd. from prev.

disclosed to me that Kaukab, son of Qamar Khan, has
associated with a Hindu ascetic and consequently his
teachings which are completely baped on infidelity and
heresy, had found favour in the' heart of ignorant
Kaukab. The latter had also got involved his cousins
Abdul Latif and Sharib in those bad activities and
wicked ideas. When I came to knpw this, I summoned
them to my presence. After an ordinary threat they
both described everything which pannot be mentioned
here I thought it necessary to punish them. Hence both
Kaukab and Sharib were sent to imprisonment. Abdul
Latif was awarded the sentence of hundred lashes
before me. This special punishmenf was only to protect
the Shariat . so that ignorant ones do not involve in
such things". (Tuzuk, p.83).

1. See Tuzuk, p.100.

2. Maktubat # Vol. I, Letter No.53. phaikh Ahmad writes,
"I hove come to know that the King of Islam, for the
sake of his love which he has in pis heart for Islam,
has asked you (Shaikh Farid) to find out four pious
ulama for his royal court to describe and explain the
laws of the Shar iat so that no nop-Islamic injunction
can be promulgated. All praises jje to God, no other
news will be more happy for the' Muslims than this
one".

273

ulama to be appointed in his royal court.* One can easily
reach the conclusion that Jahangir was somehow influenced by
Shaikh Ahmad's religio-political thought, if not directly,
through the influence of Shaikh Farid Bukhari. 2 Professor
Nizami rightly says that the extent of Shaikh Ahmad's

1. It is to be borne into mind that Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi, on^hearing this news, advised Shaikh Farid
Bukhari to insist Jahangir for appointing only one
alim # generally interested in the orthodoxy, for this
purpose, rather than four. He thought that the company
of such an alim would act as philosopher's stones.
Shaikh Ahmad was of the opinion that if four alims
were appointed, they would quarrel among themselves;
and thus the purpose of implementation of the Shariat
would be lost. He wrote to Shaikh Farid that the
'reign of Akbar was marked by much confusion resulting
from the discussing of controversial religious issues.
So he apprehended the repetition of the same situation
with the possibility of its culminating in ruinous
consequences. (See for details, Mpktubafe, Vol. I,
Letter No.53).

2. Rizvi once again doubts Shaikh Farid's association
with Shaikh Ahmad. Prolonging an unnecessary
discussion about Shaikh Farid he says, "Lahore, which
was assigned to him in the sixth regnal year, was a
strong centre of patheistic mysticism due to the
influence of Miyan Mir and his disciples. With a
record of inefficiency to his credit. Shaikh Farid
could hardly dare to enforce such 'unwise' steps as
Mujaddid advised". (See, Muslim Revivalist Movement,

p.228).

This view is not acceptable. Irrespective of
Shaikh Farid's political and administrative
difficulties, the pantheistic mysticism was not an
obstacle, in the task of implementation of the
Shariat . The Islamic history gives the names of
thousands of the Muslim saint w)io simultaneously
believed in pantheism, Wahdat-u l-Wuiud, and strictly
followed the laws of Sh ariat .

influence on Jahangir is a moot point, this much is certain
that Jahangir did not pursue Akbar's policy of dabbling in
religious matters and making religious experiments.!

The second phase of Shaikh Ahmad's relations with
Jahangir starts with the appointment of his Khalifa, Shaikh
Badiuddin's, as his chief envoy in the royal army at the
Mughal Capital, Agra, in 1619 A.D. This appointment was
made in order to popularise Shaikh Ahmad's message among the
soldiers of the army and the common people.2 it appears that
Badiuddin's presence at Agra brought a positive response for
the Shaikh's spiritual mission. Bottj the sections of the
Muslim Society, Civil as well as military, zealously
received him and a large multitude joined his mystic fold.
But the situation could no longer prevail in his favour. It
seems that Badiuddin's increasing popularity in the Mughal
army and among the Muslims of Agra became troublesome for
the Mughal government because, at least on one occassion,
despite the strict instructions of his pir, he hod to leave
Agra for his home towns, Saharanpur, and return to Sirhind
only due to the trouble and difficulties created by some

1. State and Culture in Medieval India , p.171.

It may be mentioned here that Shaikh Ahmad might have
sent Badiuddin to Agra after fully being aware of
Jahangir's inclination towards the orthodoxy. Other¬
wise, he could not have taken this step.

2 .

royal officials who had great enmity with Shaikh Ahmad. Jt
is reported that Baiuddin's departure from Agra, without his
pir's prior permission, highly displeaped Shaikh Ahmad. The
author of Zubdat-ul-Muqamat say that when Sirhindi sent
Badiuddin second time to Agra, he again attracted a iarge
number of the soldiers and officials who learnt from him the
Naqshbandi thought and practices. According to Hashim Kishmi
they were so closely attached to Shaikh Badiuddin that some
of the mischivious people made publicity that he (Badiuddin)
was spreading hatred among nd provoking the royal army
against Jahangir. The enemies so strongly propagated against
Badiuddin that they included Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also in
their conspiracy.1 If the matter is seriously scrutinized,
it come to light very clearly that Shaikh Ahmad's intention
behind Badiuddin as appointment in the royal army was not at
all to launch any revolt against Jahangir. If he would be
interested in such activities, he had not missed the
opportunity .to join the camps of the rebells of Bengal and
Bihar, and Mirza Muhammad Hakim, the ruler of Kabul, against
Akbar. As a matter of fact, Sirhindi's main objective was to
bring the Muslims of all catagories back to the teaching of
the Quran and the Holy Prophet.

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat , p.348.

2S2

The opponents did not stop here. • They adopted and
showed an open hostility to Shaikh chiliad Sirhindi. They

poisoned Jahangir's ears that the rising popularity of the

*

saint could lead to politica] disturbences in the wholc
Mughal Empire as many of his (Sirhindi's) representatives
had been deputed to almost all the important towns and
cities. Really this (thing) might have annoyed and striken
Jahangir because as an emperor he could not have tolerated
any thing challenging his own sovereignty at any moment.
Secondly he was then totally surrounded by Iranese nobles
who did not have any soft corner for Shaikh Ahmad because
of his severe criticism as well as refulation of their
religious beliefs. It is to be borne in mind that all his
efforts not withstanding. Shaikh Ahmad's opponent could not
be successul in their false accusation against him. It
appears that despite their deep influence over Jahangir,
they could not convince him in this direction. Their
hypothesis could not linger on. Nevertheless, they continued
their cunning and fraud and made another scheme against
Shaikh Ahmad by renewing some old grievances. Now they
brought to light a later of the Shaikh which he had written
to his spiritual mentor, Khwaja Baqi Billah, during his
life-time around 1008-9/1601-2, and they taught the Emperor
that he (Shaikh Ahmad) had claimed himself to have

transcended the spiritual stage of the first pious Caliph,
Abu Bakr Siddiqe. By doing so their intention seems nothing
but to play with the religious sentiments of the Emperor and
others who, having soft corners for Islam and orthodoxy,
according to their (Sirhindi's opponents) wishes, could not
.have been silent on such a crucial stage. They suggested the
Emperor to take immediate action against the Shaikh lest
there could not have been agitations among the general
masses.*

Accordingly, Jahangir sent for Sifhindi to his royal
court at Agra in order to explain the accusations levelled
against him. On reaching the court Shaikh Ahmad, on his
appearance before the Emperor, first of all refused to make
the customary obeisance, 'Sajda-i-Tazimi’ to him, and when
urged to observe the usual court etiquette, Sirhind replied,
"I have never bomed my head to any of God's creatures and I

v

never will".2 The Emperor then ordered for his imprisonment

1. For details, see Hazarat-ul-Quds . Vol. II, p.115.

2. Hazarat-ul-Quds . Vol.II, Lahore 1971, p.115.

The author. Shaikh Badurddin Sirhindi writes, "The
Shaikh (Ahmad Sirhindi) was brought to' Emperor who
asked him that he had come to know that he (Sirhindi)
had written that he surpassed the spiritual position
of the first pious Caliph. The Shaikh denied it and
said that if the Emperor called upon some body near to
him in the royal court, and bestowed his favours upon
and made negotiations with that person in the presence
of eminent nobles and high officials, he (the person
called upon) would have to pass through all of the

contd..

2S4

in the Gwalior fort.* It may be mentioned here that
according to Hazarat-ul-Qads. Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan)
was devoted to the saint since his vejy young age. Due to
the situation in the court and the Emperor's summons to
Shaikh Ahmad, he (Shah Jahan) was ve*y much anxious and
worried. He sent Maulana Afzal Khan and Mufti Abdur Rahman,
both of them eminent alims, to Sirhind to get the Shaikh
convinced for performing the customary obeisance to
Jahangir. Shah Jahan reported the Shaikh that the
prostration before king was lawful in f|ome condition, and if
he did so, he (Shah Jahan) assured and guaranteed him full
protection. But Shaikh Ahmad responded that Prince Khurram's
proposal was an act of departure from the Divine laws

f.note contd. from prev.

courtiers in order to reach him (the Emperor). Sirliin-
di said that this action of that person did not at ail
mean that he surpassed the ranks and positions of the
nobles and official. After receiving the Emperor's
favours that person wouid have to return to his proper
place which is lowest of all. S^me is the case with
me. Whatever I described in the ietter, it was just my
spiritual journey which lasted for some moment. Then I
return to my original place. It is reported that the
Shaikh's arguments cooled the Emperor's anger but in
the mean time a person, who was not a God-fearing one,
toid the Emperor that the Shaikh was so proud that he
did not prostrate before him who is the shadow of God
and His vicegerent. Hearing these words Jahangir
turned against and 01 derod to imprison Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi into the Gwalior fort". (For details see
pp.115-16) .

1 .

Ibid , p.116.

( rukhsat ): whereas the act of determination ( azima t) on the

right path was that the prostration should not be offered
before any one except God.^ Consequently he was taken into
custody by a Rajpoot officer, Ani Rai Singh Dalan, to be
kept imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior in the month of Rabi
II 1028/ March 1619 (23/25 Khurdad, the 15th regnal year of
Emperor Jahangir).2 It appears from the maktubat that the
Shaikh's house, sarai , well garden and books had also been
confiscated, and his family mambers were sent elsewhere.^

It is to be pionted out that the letter for which
Shaikh Ahmar was accused, had been written seventeen or
eighteen years back. Even the first volume of the
Maktubat-i-Iman-i-Rabbani . which contain the very letter,
had also appeared in 1025 A.H./1616 A.D. The question arises
as to why not Emperor Jahangir took any notice of the letter
and Shaikh Ahmad's activities till 1619. Before going into

1. Hazarat-ul-Ouds . p.116.

2. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri . pp.272-73.

N.B. - According to Shah Zawwar Husain, it was 4th of
Rabi II 1026 when Shaikh Ahmad was sent to imprison¬
ment. See, Hazarat Muiaddid-i-AJLf-i-Thani , Karachi
1975, p. But Si raj Ahmad says that it was Tst Rajah
3()28/4th Juno 3 63 9. Sec, Maktuba t-jL-I ma m-i- Rabbanj kj
Dini wa Moashrati Ahmiyat . Karachi , n.d., p.115.

3.

Maktubat , Vol. Ill, Letter No.2.

deep it is better to mention Professor Nizami who too raises
a question in this context, which is itself an answer of our
guerry. he says, "Was he (Jahangir) now compelled to take
some action against him (Shaikh Ahmqd Sirhindi) due to
changes brought about in the court politics with the advent
of Nur-Jahan". 1 If the situation is fully analysed, we
shall have to come across the result that Professor Nizami's
doubt is genuine. Really there was qhange in the court
politics at that time. Shaikh Farid Bukhari had died and
Jahangir's favourite queen was Nur Jahan whose father
Itimaduddoula and brother Asif Khan occupied highest ranks
in the Empire. It is remarkable that during the life-time of
Farid Bukhari no opponent of Ahmad Sirhindi could oppose or
make any object against him (Sirhindi). It is only after
Shaikh Farid's death in 3025/1616 that the forces belonging
to Shi 1 i sect raised their heads in the roya] circJe and
influenced Jahangir by attracting to their religious
ideology. Now turning again to Nizami's doubt about
Itimaduddaula's family, we too, have to be convinced of
their opposition ofShaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. It is to be kept
in mind that the latter, as mentioned ealrier in his youth,
had severly attacked the Shias on account of their

increasing domination and anti-Sunni activities in the

..

1

State and Cultu re in Me dieval I ndi a, p.169

Mughal Court. Here, it is necessary to refer to Friedmann
#>

who does not agree with Nizami's opinion and contradicts Nur
Jahan's hand in Sirhindi's imprisonment by saying that it is
not satisfactorily established by sound historical method.
Instead, he considers Jahangir's statement about the
Shaikh's imprisoment more significant and historically
satisfactory. He is also of the view that Nur Jahan's
opposition of Shaikh Ahamar Sirhindi is a part of the
saint's image developed in Indian Muslim literature.But
to make our opinion historically sound we shall have to turn
to Dara Shukoh's account of the Shaikh. Dara's position as
an important member of the royal famiy is well established.
Born in 1024 A.H./1614 A.D.in the royal fort of Jahangir,^
he must* have come to know the circumstances which led to
Sirhindi's imprisonment. None of his statement in this
connection can be denied as saying unsatisfactory. To our
complete satisfaction he informs us that whatever had been
done to Shaikh ahmad was due to the calumny and malicious

1. Shaikh Ahm ad iiixMndi, p.84.

2. For Dara Shukoh's biographical and other details. See,

Certainly these opponents

misrepresentation of opponents. 1
were Nur Jahan, her father Itimadaddaulah, brother Asaf Khan
and others of their sect and ideolocjy who occupied the
highest ranks in the Mughal Empire in those days. They must
have poisoned Jahangir's ears and tried to bring him under
their influence, and even compelled him to take some action
against Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. Professor Nizami, after
analysing the whole event, says, "It is difficult to find
any consistent application to the religious ideology of
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in the life or thought of Jahangir,
probably because there were influences at the court - one of
them being Nur Jahan herself - which pulled him in another
direction and continued to work against Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi and other of. his school of thought."2

Shaikh Ahmd continued his correspondence with different
persons from the GwaJior fort. The thrid volume of his
maktubat contains several letters, specially in the
beginning, which were despatched from his imprisonment. In a
letter to his sons, Khwaja Muhammad Saeed and Muhammad

1. Dara Shukoh, Safina t -ul-Auli ya. Agra, 1269 A.II.,
p.197-98.

Dora was twenty five years o3d when he compiled this
work. A person of this age group is J fully expected to
have collected the material forhis book after a com¬
plete scrutiny.

2. State and Culture, p.170-71.

Masum, he writes, "you should know the place where you are
living nowadays as your home]and. Wherever you live, you
should be devoted to God's prayers. The worldly affairs are
very easy and simple, you should turn yourselves to the
world hereafter. Do console your mother and you should
always persuade her to the hereafter. As for our meeting, it
depends on Allah's will. If He likes, we will meet surely.
Otherwise make submission to and pray Him that we may
assemble in the hereafter. We postpone our meeting in this
world and think for it in the hereaftei, with the Mercy and
Grace of Allah Almighty.It appears that the saint's
imprisonment caused great anxiety ip his followers and
supporters. But the Shaikh considered every difficulty in
term of mysticism and manifestation of God's awe ( ialal ) as
distinguished from His beauty ( iamal ). Once he wrote to Mir
Muhammad Nu'man, his senior most khalifa . "Untill I was
confined' to the imperisonment, with the favours of god which
appeared as His awe and wrath, I had not crossed the defile
of iiian-i -Shahuclj, the faith of Appearance, and I had not
completely come across the world of imagination and
retaliation; . and I had not fully commenced the journey on

l.Maktubat, Vol. Ill, Letter No.2

3,93

the path of iman biat-ghaile # the faith in Unseen.At
the conclusion of the very same letter Sirhindi further
writes, "If Allah had not bestowed His Mercy and Favours as
well as Rewards upon me , a humble man of broken arms and
wings, most probably I would have fell into despair and
disappointment, and become hopeless. Prpise be to Allah who
gave me security from affliction and calamity, and conferred
this Rewards and Honour on me in the atmospher of cruetly
and ruthlessness, and bestowed His grace and Favours upon me
in the situation of trouble and sorrow* and guided me to
render thanks to Him in both pleasures and troubles, and
created me among the followers of prophets and the saints,
and the lovers of ulama and pious people.May God confer His
blessings and Mercy on prophets and their followers."2
Shaikh Badiuddin, whom Sirhindi had earlier deputed in Agia,
once wrote to him^y communicating his deep concern over the
hardship of his pir in the gwalior foit. However, Shaikh
Ahmad replied Badiuddin very politely that, "I received your
letter through Shaikh Fath'ullah. You have mentioned the
cruetly and reprehension of some people against me. My
friend, be known, it is the beauty of the group of sufis and
like the polish for its rust. There, why should it be the

1. Maktubat . Vol. Ill, Letter No.5.

2

Ibid

291

reasons of heartbearing, anguish and affliction? when this
faoir reached this caravan, it seemed from the very
beginning that the illumination (light) of people's
accusation were coming, one after another, from cities and
villages, as appearing the clouds of Divine light. And they
weretaking my spiritual affairs from lowness to elevation. I
have been trained fro several years with spiritual beauty
( iamal ) and now I am journeying through the training of awe
and wroth of God. Hence you should have patience and be
pleased with every thing, and consider the iamal and ialal
as equal.”*

Mir Muhammad Nu’man, the senior most Khalifa of the

%

Shaikh, was also worried and distressed upon the
imprisonment of his spiritual preceptor. Though permanently
resided at Burhanpur, he himself came to Agra in order to
seek the Shaikh's release. However, he (Mir) does not seem
to have been allowed to visit the Gwalior fort and see his
master there. When, through some sources, Sirhindi came to
know of Mir's activities in Agra, he wrote to him, "The
reason of your stay at Agra is unknown. Though it (Agra) is
near from me (Gwalior), it is useless to stay there while
you cannot see me. Please, do not stay there for my sake.

l. Haktub at, Vol. Ill, Letter No.6.

292

Giving rue in the custody of Allah,you ropvc towards your own
place (Burhanpur) and continue to please and guide its
inhabitants." 1 The Maktubat-i-Imam-i-ftabbanj reveals that
many other followers of the Shaikh were also making efforts
to get their master released from the imprisonment in
Gwalior fort. In one of his letters (majvtubat.) , also sent to
Mir Muhammad Nu'man, Shaikh Ahmad says, "My revered brother
Mir Muhaman Nu'man must have come to kjiow that my friends
and well-wishers made efforts for my release but they could

not be successful. It is better what Allah has done. As a

*

human being I too was distressed and disappointed in the
beginning but, in course of time, all j^y anxieties turned
into pleasures and satisfaction, I came to the conclusion
that if the aims and objects of my enemies and opponents are
in accordance with the will of Almighty God, then my
anxieties and displeasures are useless and contrary to my
claim of Divine love as the pain in the way of the Beloved's
love is equally amiable and beautiful like his favours and
grace.Sometimes he (the lover) is rewarded by the Beloved's

Maktubat, Vol. Ill, Letter No.12.

It appears from this letter that Mir Muhammad
Numan sought the royal permission to visit the Gwalior
fort but he was not allowed. His arrival in Agra from
Burhanpur is an indication that he had come there for
this purpose only. Moreover, the Shaikh's regret over
Mir's stay at Agra clearly reveals that he had been
prevented to meet his spiritual mpntor.

293

c

favours and sometimes he has to meet His anger and
resentment. But he gets more and more taste in this aspect
of his Beloved because there is not ail any suspicion of
self-desire and pleasure. And when God |ias resolved to keep
somebody in troubles. His decision may be a kind of his
graces and Mercies and source a spiritual pleasures. And the
purpose of my enemies seems in accordance with the purpose
of God and as their purpose is a door of God's purpose,hence
I should their purpose approved and elegant and a source of
enjoyment. All his acvtions and movements are appreceble
like those of his belove whose actions and movementrs are
the manifestation of those of his believed, and every one
who performs such acts like those of the beloved, is also
loved by the lover. It is surprising thpt as much as he (the
person whose deeds are like those of beloved) show cruelty,
he seems beautiful in the eys of lover ys this cruelty seems
to be the cruetly of beloved. All their affairs are enirely
opposite who tread on this path (the path toward Allah).
Hence, it is contrary to the love for beloved to have the
feelings of disheartedness and badness for such person
because he is nothing but a mirror which reflects the
actions of beloved. However, those who pre tormenting, seem
to be more beautiful than the other people.

"Please ask your friends to remove their greafs and
sorrow from their hearts, they should not have any bad
thinking for their enemies, but they should take joy in
their deeds and actions. As Allah has ordained us to pray
Him and seek His favours and He very much likes our
invocations, submission and humility, wq should, therefore,
invoke. His blessings for the removal of calamities, and we
should seek His shelter and ask for His pardon."! In the
meantime, when Badruddin Sirhindi, the author of Hazara t -ul-
Ouds . sought his master's opinion regarding some spiritual
and theological problems, especially the relations between
human body and the soul, Shaikh Ahmad despatched him a
detailed leter which concluded as, "what has happened to you
while our separation has not yet completed a year".^

It appears that during the period of imprisonment in
Gwaliyar Shaikh Ahmad was harassed also by the fort
authorities. And his harrassment must hc|ve caused anxiety in
his followers. Maulana Muhammad Tahir Badakhshi, also a
renowned khalifa of Shaikh Ahmad, seems to have communicated
his worries to his pir because, in a letter to the Maulana,
Shaikh Ahmad once wrote that he should not be very much

1

x •

2

Maktubat , Vol. Ill, Letters No.15, 18, 19.
Ibid, Letter No.31.

295

careful of Mr; (Shaikh Ahmadi's) troubles and distress in
the imprisonment but he should be quiet and devoted to God.
The letter runs, "Don't be worried and distressed upon the
news of my disturbence and troubles, It is beautiful and
proper what Allah does. Though externally it seems His wrath
but in fact it is His Grace and Beauty. Do not take my words
inseriously as these are not mere a fprmality. It is fact

what I say.Derwish Muhammad Ali gave me your letter

which is consolatory for me. I came to know what you wrote.
I have written my present condition ^n the reply. All my
sons and friends should maintain Unity among themselves and
be firm and strict. They should be satisfied with Almighty
God." 1

Though it is difficult to say whether the efforts of
Ahmad Sirhindi's Khalifas and supporters, regarding his
release from the imprisonment, brought any positive respons
but according to contemporary and letter sources, he was
released TTrom the Gwalior fort about one year later in
1029/1620.2 Jahangir gave him a robe qf honour and present

1. Maktu bat. Vol . Ill, I-etter No. 37.

2. It may bo noted heio that some letter works say that

the period of Sirhindi's imprisonment was three years
which is incorrect. (See Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgirami,
Sabh a t-ul-Maraia ir f i Asar-j-H X ndustan, 1303/1885,

p.53/Nawab Siddiqi Hasan Khan, Ah iad-ul-Ulum . Bhopal,
1295/1878, p.899/Rehman Ali, Tazkir-l-Ulama-i-Hind .
Lucknow 1914, p.12/Khairuddin Zarkali, Al-Alam , Vol.I,
Cairo (Egypt), 1954, p.139). Professor Muhammad Aslam

Contd..

296

of one thousand rupees. According to the JTuzuk-j-Jnhnngj rj .
Shaikh Ahmad wets cjiven the choice of either staying at , the
royai camp or leaving for home. The Shaikh preferred to live
with the Emperor rather than to return to. Sirhind.^

f.note contcl. from prcv.

says that Sirhindj was in imprisonment for two years
(See, Hazrat Shaikh Ahmad Sirhi ndi , Lahore, 1973,
p.4). It is also incorrect.

It may also be noted that some later and modern
works state that Sirhindi did not leave not Gwalior
fort until Jahangir accept certain conditions, that
the 'Sajda-i-tazimi' the prostration before the king,
would be abolished; that all the mosques that had been
erased should be erected; he cancelled, that Qazis,
muftis and censors he appointed to enforce the Islamic
code; that Jizva should be re-.jntroduced; that all
innovations ( bidat ) be stopped and the injunctions of
the Shariat # the Laws of Islam, he enforced; and all
the prisoners, who had been sent to prison in contra¬
vention of the above, be released. (See, Rauzat-ul-
Gaiyy umiya (Urdu), p.l91/B.A. Fhruoi, The Mui addid's
co nceptions of T awhid , Lahore, ^940, p.26). But all
the contemporary sources ore silent in this
connections because the release from the trouble
imprisonment was itself the impoitont the question for
him. (See Sirat-i-Muiaddid-i-Alf^i-Suni . p.197).

1* Tuzuk-i -J ah anciir , p.3CC.

Jahangir writes in the account of the 15th year of his
reign, I summoned Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi who had been
in prison for some time on account of boasting, adorn¬
ing his shop and using immoderate language, and I
released him, giving him a iobe ( khil at) and one
thousand rupees, I also authorised him either to go
home or to remain with me. He jgstly told his impris¬
onment was really valuable and a guidance for him. And
he expressed his desire to remain in my service".

N.B. - It may be mentioned that there is difference of
opinion among the scholars on Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi's
presence in the royal camp. There is a question among
them whether the saint's presence was voluntarly, as
Jahangir has said above, or he was forced to remain

contd..

\

297

Now begins the 1 hi i cl and last phase of Shaikh Ahmad's
role in the Mughal politics. Both the contemporary records
and the later works soy that the Shaikh remained in royal
army and accompanied it to various place for four years.

f.note contd. from prev.

with the Emperor. Professor Muhammad Farman and Pro¬
fessor Muhammad Masud Ahmad do not think it voluntary.
The former says that it is Jahangir's diplomacy and
falsehood when he writes that he-gave right to Shaikh
Ahmad either to go home or to remain with him.
Muhammad Farman say that Jahangir kept the Mujaddid in
r imprisonment till last moment, (See, Haya t- i- Mujaddid,
Lahore, 1970, p.35) . Similarly Masud Ahmad says that
the Mujaddid's release was not the complete release
and freedom but it was kind of restriction and impris¬
onment , (See, Sirat-i-M uiaddid-i-Alf -i-S ami, p.198).

On one occasion Shaikh Muhammad Ikram, also seems, to
be agreed with the above opinions, (See Rud-i-Ka usar,
p.273). It may also be mentioned here that Khwaja
Hashim Kishmi too writes, " Due t<j> i nterference of the
E mperor . he (the Shaikh) had to'go to various cities
for two three years (See Zubda t -ul - Maqam at, p.159).

The real words of Hashim Kishmi clearly reveal that
the Shaikh's presence in the royal camp was not volun¬
tary .

The letters of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi also bring
this fact to the light that he had not voluntarily
joined the royal camp, but he was forced to do so. In
one of his letter he says to his sons Muhammad Sneed
and Muhammad Macurn, "My sons, |>e satisfied, people
care my difficulties and they are trying for my re¬
lease from the confinement. Thpy don't as to what
beauty is hidden in disappointment., helplessness and
failure. Nothing can be equal to this grace that a new
life is to be given to me by making me helpless. All
my affairs have been given to this helplessness and J
have become like the person who seems alive but who
has dead. "(See Maktubat, Vol. J£I, Letter No.83). In
another, letter he says, "I consider it a good-fortune
to live in royal camp with disappointment and help¬
lessness". (See (Ibid, Letter Mo,87).

29 S

During this period he visited some cities of northern
India.1 Wherever the royal army went and encamped. Shaikh
Ahmad went there, it appears that he smarted his journey
from Kashmir nr> at that lime Jahangir was staying there. The
author of Mairoa-ul-Auliva says, "The great Emperor Abul
Muzaffar Nurudding Muhammad Jahangir, on his departure from
Kashmir, fell serioously ii1. Physicians gave medical cure
to him but he did not recover. His personal and private
servants advised him to turn to pious people. Hence in this
connection Shaikh^Ahmad was also approached and requested to
extend his spiritual blessings for the recovery and good
health of the Emperor. The Shaikh, therefore, went himself
to Jahangir. The latter invited him to hfs royal palace and
asked for his recovery. It is reported that Shaikh Ahmad!

r

before blessing the Emperor,exhorted him to popularize
Islam; its teachings and customs. Jahangir is said to have
answered the Shaikh, "It is for you to soy* and it is for me
to do." The Shaikh offered namaz and invoked the
blcssings.lt is said that the Emepror recovered in the same
night. When the royal army, alongwith Jahangir and Shaikh
Ahmad, reached and encamped at Sirhind, |:he Emperor desired
to have meal at Shaikh Ahmad's house. The later next day

1. Zubdat-ul-Maqa mat. p.159.

sent some delicious dishes, prepared in his own kitched, to
Emperor Jahangir, through his sons. It is said that after
eating the food of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhind^; Jahangir told Asaf
Khan that all the items of the meal w§re very tasty; and
that he took only half of the meal, the remaining halfwar
with him to have later. Then he asked Asaf Khan to go to
Shaikh Ahmad in order to request him for accepting some
annual or monthly grant either in cash or in kind for the
expenses of the sainsts and mashaikh of his khanaah . But
Shaikh Ahmad did not agree with and said to him that the
beggars of God beg only from Him."-*- Tlje above statement
reveals clearly that the Shaikh Ahmad, after his release
from the imprisonment, came to Sirhind and met his family
members. But it appears he could not stay therefore long
time and he had to join the royal caravan and leave Sirhind,
his native place* for another place.He then reached Delhi
and afterwards came to Agra and remained therefore some
time. His presence in the royal camp, if on one hand,
compelled him to leave his house, family members and

1. Ali Akbar Husaini Ardistani, Mairng-ul-Auliya . (M.S.),
I.O.L. NO.145, f.442.

N.B. - The Emperor's attitude towards the Shaikh shows
that now had much regards for and faith in him. But it
appears th£t the atmosphere created by his father,
Akbar, had r/fade him helpless, and he could not express
his open sympathies for Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. Most
probably the influence of Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan etc.
also a factor in this way.

disciples and followers, on the other,it provided him with
an opportunity to frequently meet the Emperor himself. He
did not miss any chance to persuade Jahangir to Islam and
Shariat, once he wrote to his sons, Muhammad Said and
Muhammad Ma'sum, "Thanks to God that everything is all right
here. We are keeping good companies. By god's grace, I did
not lose any single moment without describing theological
points and the Islamic principles to him (Jahangir). Every
thing which I used to explain in my private gathering, I am
describing athem here. If I start to write only about one
meeting, it would require a whole volume especially the
conversation of this night, the 17th of Ramazan. Many points

like the creation of prophets, the unstability of reason,

%

the faith in hereafter, the reward and the punishment, the
Divine Appearance, the seal of the Prophecy of last of the
Prophet, the muiaddid of every century, the following of the
Piotts Caliphs, the lawfulness of tarawj h. the falseness of
transmigration and the iiwis and their affairs were
discussed. The Emperor listen to me with full attention. In
this connection aqatab . Abdal . Autad and their affairs were
also explained. Thanks to God that the Emperor compeletely
participated in the discussion. There was no alteration in
him. May be there is hidden some type of Welfare in these
talks. I am thankful t God who guided me to do so. If he had

not directed me, I would not have found this way. Undented!y
our Holy Prophet came wjlh Truth in this world.The
letter apparently shows as to how Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindj
dealt with Jahangir and propagated Islam in his royal
audience. Prof. Masud Ahmad rightly says that as many
theological and rational problems which were explained by
Shaikh Ahmad in the royal palaces, all of them were the same

problems which had wrongly been interpreted in the Akbar's

• 7 *

reign

In those days Jahangir sent an expedition to the fort
of Kangra under the command of Sunder Das, entitled Paja
Bikramajit. Some of the nobles of Jahangir such as Shahbaz
Khan Lodi, Hirdai Narain Hada, Raja Prithi Chand and the son
of Ram Chand are also reported have been sent with the army.
Prince Khuriam himself accompained the expedition. The
Kangra Fort was conquered aftei a siege of fourteen months,
on 1st Muharram 1030/16tli November 1620.3 it is remarkable
that before going to the Kangra expadition Raja Bikramajit

1. Makt ubat. Vol. Ill, Letter No.43.

2. Sirat-i-Muiaddid-i-Alf-i-Sani , p.205.

3. It may be noted that Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was
interested in the conquest of Kapgra Fort from the
very beginning. When in March 1615, Jahangir appointed
Nawab Murtuza Khan, (Shaikh Farid Bukhari), the then
governor of Punjab, to lead an expedition against the
Kangra Fort, Shaikh Ahmad heard this with great
jubilation. In one of his letters he once wrote to
Murtuza Khan, "Every has some desire in his heart. But
my desire is that the enemies of God and the Holy
Prophet should be dealt with severely. I know very

302

had sought the blessings of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. The

f.note contd. from prev.

well that no other action is more laudable before God
than this one. That is why. I repeatedly urge you to
do this act. I consider the performance of this duty
<■ as one of the most important obligations of Islam.
Since you hove personally gone there (kangra) and have
been deputed to condemn and insult that dirty place
and its inhabitants, first you should thank Almighty
God because a large number of people go there for
pilgrimage and to pay homage to that place and to its
inhabitants. We must thank Almighty God that He did
not assign us to this calamitous fate, i.e. the idol
worship, lifter offering thanks of this great boon, we
should strive hard to insult find condemn these
wratches and their false gods. We ehould make attempt,
whether openly or secretly, for their destruction.
Their chiselled or unchiselled idols should be insult¬
ed or unchiselled idols should be insulted in ell
manners and in all ways. It is expected that some of
your lapses shall be compensat'd for by this
achievement and shall be a cause of the atonement of
them. As I am unable to come to you on account of my
physical weakness and excessive otherwise. I would
have come to persuade you personally to do this act”.
(See Maktubat / Vol. I, Letter No.269).

It may also be noted that Muriuza Khan could not
be success in this expedition to Kangra and subse¬
quently he died in 1616. (Zakhira(:-ul-Khawanin, Vol.
I, p.1^6). The Bazarat-u l-Ouds states that when Nawab
Saiyyid Murtuza Khan was deputed to conquer the Kangra
Fort, he sent a petition to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and
requested him to pray for his victory. The Shaikh
told his disciples the very next day that he meditated
on the matter in the morning and was spiritually
informed that the fort could not be conquered by
Murtuza Khan. The same reply was despatched to him (to
Murtuza Khan). Shortly afterwards the news reached
that the Saiyyid had passed away and the fort could
not be conquered. (See p.178).

N.B. - As far as the history of the expeditious
against the Kangra Fort is concerned, it appears that
first of all it was invaded by Sultan'Mahmud of Ghaznn
in 1009. After a long period of thpee centuries Muham¬
mad bin Tughlaq undertook an expedition against it in
1337. The ruler of Kangra offered resistance and the
fort could not be taken. Subsequently in 1363 Sultan
Firuz Shah led another expedition against it but the

contd...

303

author of Hazarat-ul-Quds says, that when Raja Bikrama jit
was ordered to lead the expedition against Kangra Fort, he
approached the Shaikh and most humbly submitted that he was
a muslim in his heart. Thereupon the Shaikh told him that if
anybody became Muslim in his but outwardly he remained an
infidel, he was infidel, Kafir . T}ie Bikraroajit again
submitted that the Emperor had appointed him to lead an
expedition against Kangra Fort which was so difficult task
that even person like Nawab Murtuza Khan could not be
success in his efforts. He told tha£ he was very much
anxious as to how should invade the country of fidels, dar-
ul-harb . He requested the Shaikh to spiritually guide him
and to forecast the conquest of the fort. Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi replied, "The war against the infidels ( kafirs ) of
dar-ul-harb is Sbligetory for every Muslim. When you are
yourself performing. This obligatory dut and relieving
f.note contd. from prev.

fort remained uncaptured though its ruler agreed to
pay tributed to the Sultan. Later on. Emperor Akbar
also made an attempt to capture the fort. He sent an
expedition in 980/1572-73 under Hasain Quli. Though lie
occupied the outer town but the inner citadel still
held out. It was Jahangir who captured it in 1620.

305

ul-Auli ya says that after conquest of the fact, Emperor
Jahangir asked Shaikh Ahmad that if he accompanied him, he
would slaughter a cow, demolish the idols, construct a
mosque and propagate Islam. The Shaikh accompanied the
Emperor to the Kangra Fort and Jahangir acted according to
his commitment.^

The third volume of the Maktubat-i-Iroam-i-Rabbani
contains a letter which was sent to Emperor Jahangir. Though
it is difficult to trace out that from where the saint
despatched this letter but it seems to have been written
after the conquest of Kangra Fort because at various places
in the letter he ^ndirectly mentioned that he very much
invoked <god's blessings for the victory pf the royal army.
To quote Sirhindi, God has created any thing useless. Every
thing what depends on war and struggle, fielp the state and
the empire on which the propagation of Islam is based as our
elders have said the Shariat is under the wielding of sword.
The army of blessings ( lashkar-i-dua ) which consist of the
pious persons, performs the same duty as the victory is of
two types . On which belongs to worldly conquest and depends
upon army and battle. The other kind of victory is the
reality of worldly conquest and it directly'links with god.

1. Maima-ul-Auliya (MS.), f.443a.

304

others from it, then how I would not pray for your. "When
Raja Bikramajit found the Shaikh so considerate, he began to
entrect still more persistently and submitted that he would
not move until the Shaikh would give hijn good tidings of
victory. The saint repeated the words he had uttered
earlier. The Raja again requested with great humility. When
Shaikh Ahmad found him unsatisfied, he meditated for a while
and said, "Victory is certainly years, ypu need not worry,
and go without ca^." Bikramajit departed from there with
great humility and within a short period conquered the fact,
which could not be conquered by previous puttens though they
made great efforts.^

When Emperor Jahangir reached Kangra,^ Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi is reported to accompained him. It is said that he
had requested the saint for the same. The author of Maima-

1. Hazarat-ul-Ouds . pp.170-79.

2. On reaching Kangra Fort, aiongwith Qazi, Mir Adi, and
other learned persons of Islam, Jahangir ordered
whatever was customary according to the religion of
the Holy Prophet to be carried out there. He writes in
his tuzuk , "Briefly, having traversed about one kos I
reached the top of the fort and by the Grace of God,
the call to prayer, and the reading of the khutba and
the slaughter of cow etc., which h a< 3 not ever been
performed these, were carried or jn my presence. I
prostruted myself for thanking Almighty God for this
great gift which no king had hoped to receive, and
order to build a lofty mosque inside the fort (See,
p.340).

306

the causer of causes (musabbibu 2 asbnb). The Quran says.
There is no help except what js from God. I mean the same
victory which belongs to the army of blessings. Accordingly
despite its insult and humiliation, it (the army of bJessngs
lashkar-i-dua) preceded the army of battle and war and
linked the matter with God.

"The invocations and benediction break the calamities
as the Holy Prophet has said that nothing except invocation
culd turn said the calimity. The sword and the war have no
power to prevent calamities. Hence, the lashkar-i-dua ,
despite its weakness and humility, is more powerful than the
army of war. The army of invocation and blessings is like
spirit whereas the army of war is 2 ike b 0< ty* So both of them
are essential for each other because bod^ is useless without
the support of spirit. The ulama of Isi^m have said that the
Holy Prophet would invoke God's blessings, despite huge
army, by means ( wasila ) by pions persons and those who
migrated to Madina (from Mecca) with him (muh aiirin ).
Accordingly, the pions persons who form the army of
invocation, lashkar-i-due , apart ffom their insult,
humiliation and bad condition, prove vejry useful at the time
need and necessities. They gain people's trust and
confidence and take precedence among ail. The Holy Prophet
says that the blood of the mortyres wilj be weighed with the

ink of the ulama and the second one will be more weighty
than the first one.

"Though this humble person doest not find himself
capable to be counted in lashkar-i-dua , yet he is not all
free front the invocation of blessings. lie regards himself as
one of the well-wishers of your empire and prays for your
prosperity."^- The saint's words that the army of
invocations and blessings preceded the army of battle and
war and connected it with god, is an open indication that
the letter was written after the victory over Kangra Fort.
Moreover, the leftter also throws light on Shaikh Ahmad's
relations with Jahangir. 1 2

Any how, Sirhindi continued his journey alongwith the

1. Maktubat, Vol. Ill, Letter No.47.

2. Commenting on the saint's letter to Emperor Jahangir,

a modern scholar writes that it was just in the form
of a congratulatory petition and not in response to

any of the Emperor's letters. He further says that it

was written on an occasion when every one could freely
show his loyalty and devotion to the Emperor. (See
S.A.A. Rizvi, Muslim Revivalist Movements in Northern
India . Agra, 1965, p.306). I^izvi's view seems

incorrect as the letter does not reveal any type of

the saint's loyalty or devotion to the Emperor. It

clearly shows the superiority of religious affairs
over wordly matters. The saint d}d not at all mention
any praise for the royal army.

1

royal army and inslted various places in the Mughal.
During this period he sent a number of letter to his sons,
friends and followers. It appears that on some occasion his
sons Khwaja Muhammad Saeed and Khwaja Muhammad Masum also
joined him. In a letter to Khwaja Husamuddin, Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi writes that his sons and friends are with him and
all of them are working for the propagation of Islamic Laws,
to quote the letter, "Praise be to God, who is keeping us
very satisfied in troubles and affictions. Sons and friends,
who are staying with me, mostly spend their time in offering
prayers. They are ^fully satisfied and their spiritual
condition is day by day increasing and developing. The royal
camp ( laskar l is like a kh anoah for them. They feel
satisfaction even they are surrounded by royal
soldiers....".2 Later on, Shaikh Ahmad's son left him for
Sirhind.3

1. He also went to Banaras but the time of his arrival in
this town and the period of his stay over there is not
known. The Rauizat- ul-Qaiyyumj.ya mentions that Shaikh
had refused to drink the water brought from the river
Ganges. (See, Urdu Translation, p.209). Also see
Zawwar Husain, op.cit. , p.35.

2. Maktubat . Vol.III, Letter No.72.

3.

Ibid, Letter No.78

It appears that during the subsequent period Shaikh
himself visited Sirhindi as it was in or around 1031/1621
that Khwaja Muhammad Hashim Kishmi, the author of
Zubdat-ul-Macramat called on him at the very same place and
became his disciple.2

Finally Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and the royal army
encamped in Ajmer.3 it appears that the saint remained
there for long time - from Ramazan 1031/ July 1622 ^ to the
beginning of 1033/ 1623-24. 5 During the whole period of
his stay at Ajmer Shaikh Ahmad spent his time mostly in
offering prayers and meditations. It also appears that
Khwaja Muhammad Hashim was also staying with his spiritual

1. Rauzat -ul-Qaiyvumiya (Urdu), p.209.

Huzrat Muiaddid-i-Aif-i-Sani . p.35.

N.B. - Both these works state that Ejnperor Jahangir
accompanied the royal army and the Shaikh to Sirhind.
It is also reported that before or after the visit of
Kashmir, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi and the royal army and
even the emperor encamped in Lahore, Delhi and Banaras
as well.

2. See Preface of the Maktubat- i-Ima m-i-Rftbb ani, Vol.III,
Also, Zubdat-ul-Maqamat , p.3.

3. Letter No.85 of the maktubat . Vol. Ill reveals the
Shaikh's departure for Ajmer from some unknown place.

%

4. Maktubat . Vol. Ill (Istanbul Edition), p.605.

5. Rauzat-ul-Qaivyumiya # (Urdu), p.216.

310

mentor at Ajmer.1 Mean while. Shaikh Adam Banuri aJso
joined Ahmad's mystic discipline and received khilafat from
him. 1 2 In very those days the ulama of Balkh and Transoxiana
studied the maktubat of the Shaikh and were highly
impressed. They therefore sent their representatives to the
Shaikh with their best wishes and compliments. 3 4 Similarly a
renowned alim came to India from Balkh and called on the
Shaikh in Ajmer. He conveyed the message of eminent ulama
and mysties of the region such as Mir I(ushad, Shaikh Qadeem
Kubrawi, Mir Momin Balkhi, Maulana Hasan Qiyadiani and
Maulana Tawalluk. The messenger, who himself was a noted
scholar and sufi, is reprted to have kissed shaikh Ahmad's
hands, obtained his blessings and sought his spiritual
guidance. At his departure, Sirhindi gave him a .letter for
Mir Momin Balakhi in which he exhorted his followers in
Afghanistan and Central Asia to strictly follow the
Shariat 4. in 1031/1621, the third volume of the Haktubat-i -
Imam-i-Rabbani was compiled by Khwaja Muhammad Hashim

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . p.282 /Muktubcf t. Vol.III, Letter
No.82.

2. Rauzat-ul-Oaivvumiya . p.215.

3. Zubdat-ul-Ma^amat , p.238.

4. Ibid, pp.218-19.

311

Kishmi

The author of Zubdat-ul-Maaamat says that, during his
stay at Ajmer, once in 1032/1622, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi

asked him that he would survive upto sixty three years.

%

having informed Muhammad Hashim, the Shaikh expressed his
gladness that his own age would correspond the age of the
Holy Prophet.2 in the mean time Sirhindi experienced in very
important spiritual event. Once performing meditation in the
mosque of shrine* of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer, he
felt that something was being taken back from him and it
was being given to his son Khwaja Muhammad Masum.
Immediately after this episode, the Shaikh was spiritually
informed that it was the robe of Oaiyvumj.yat which had been
back from him and given to his son.3 Th£ saint dispatched a
letter to his sons in which be described the event and
mentioned his deteriorating physical condition. 4
Subsequently, both Khwaja Muhammad Saeed and Khwaja Muhammad
Masum reached Ajmer and joined his fathejr. They stayed there

1. See the Freface of the third volume of

Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani .

2. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat # p.282.

3. Rauzat-ul-Oaivvumiyah (Urdu), p.216.

Also, Maktubat * Vol. Ill, Letter No,104.

4 . '

Ibid.

for some time and participated in the Shaikh's spirituaJ
exercises. 1 They author of Zubdat-ul-Maq a mat says that the
saint frequently visited the tomb of Khwaj^Muinuddin Chishti
and benefited from his spiritual excellences. There he
performed medistation for severs] hours. Once the servants
of the shrine came to him and kssed his hands. They gave the
chada r ( Qabroosh ) of the Khwaja's grave to Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi. It is stated in those days it was the custom that
the chadar was changed every year and given either to any of
the graint saints or to the ruler of the time. Otherwise it
was put into a box made of precious stones, But at that time
it was given to Ahmad Sirhindi. The latter accepted it with
respect and asked his -servant to carefully keep it.
According to Hashim, £>haikh Ahmad drew a deep sigh and said
no other cloth was near to the Khwaja then that. He also
said that it should be preserved for his coffin.2 Hashirn
Kishmi a]so says that in the subsequent night he heard a
voice from the Sahikh's room. When came near, he saw that
the Shaikh was weeping and reiterating a Persian verse.3

1 .

2 .

3 «

Z ubda t -ul-Maqamat . p.282.
Ibid., pp.283-84.

Ibid., p.284.

CHAPTER-VIII

LAST DAYS AND DEATH

CHAPTER VIII

LAST DAYS AND DEATU

Muhammad Hashim Kishmi has described Sirhindi's daily
routine and the regular worship in detail. According to him,
Shaikh Ahmad.strictly followed the Shagiat and performed all

J *

the religious rituals according to the Quranic ordinances
and the traditions of the Holy Prophet. If by chance, he
committed any error, he at once repeated and invoked the
blessings of God. He always listened to the recitation of
the verses from the Quran siting on the floor.!

As born hanafite, at times he followed other schools,
the Shafite, the Hambalite and the Malfkite. As according to
Imam Abu Hanifa, a devout (namazi) peed not repeat the
opening chapter of the Quran , i.e. Syirah-i-Fatihe , behind
the Imam (one who leads the prayer), Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
generally followed the Hanafite schopl but sometimes he
performed his prayers according to the teachings of other
Imams as they are in favour of repetition. To avoid the
controversy he generally himself led the congregational
prayers. Similarly when he visited any grave, he recited the

1. Zubdat-ul-Maaamat . pp. 193-95.

314

verses of the Quran but sometimes he dispened with it as Abu
Hanifa does not approve this action whereas other schools
consider it desirable.* Performing the ablution, Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi always turned his face £o the Qibla , i.e.
the Kaba and when he washed his feet, he changed the side. 2

He got up just at mid night, performed ablution and
offered the tahaiiud prayer (the namaz offered after mid
night). Just before the sun rise Shaikh Ahmad said his
morning prayer in his mosque situated in the premises of the
Khanaah . After fair he turned the beads of rosury, reciting
the litanies. Thereafter, he performed meditation (the
maraaabah ) for some time. Later on, he met his family
members and inquired about their problems and necessities.

U

He took his breakfast there and spent some time amongst
them. Then he sat alone and recited the Quran , and having
done it, he taught his students.3 All his disciples,
students and companions are reported to have joined his
discourses with full attention and devotion.4 He had his
lunch before the noon prayer and recited the Quran after

1. Ibid, pp. 196-98.

2. Ibid, p. 198

3-. Ibid, p. 199

4. Ibid, pp. 200-201

315

offering Zuhr . He offered his afternoon prayer just after
the time began and then he meditated with his companions lor
half an hour. 1 2 3

As the prayer of maahrib (just after sun set) was
over, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi loudly recited the Kalima . i.e.
the declaration of faith. Having offered the night prayer
and completed all the Wazaif . Sirhindi went to his bed. On
Monday and Friday nights, he repeatedly recited the durud ,

i.e. invoked God's blessings and peace for the Holy Proph¬
et. ^ He offered*the congregational Friday prayer in the main
mosque of Sirhind whereas the prayers of Id-ul Fitr , the
festival on the eve of the completion of Ramazan , fasts, and
Id-ul-Azha . the festival of sacrifice at Mecca, were offered
in his own mosque. During the first ten days of the month
Zil-Hiiiah . Shaikh Ahmad neitherr shaved his head nor cut
the nails. He showed great humility and humbleness in his
prayers. 3 Sometimes he visited the graveyards of the town
and prayed for the deads. Previously )>e would kiss his
father's grave but later he gave up this practice.^

1. Ibid, pp. 2020-203

2. Ibid, pp. 205-206

3. Ibid, pp. 206-209.

Ibid, p. 210

4

313

Khwaja Hashim Kishmi says that duripg those days Shaikh
Ahmad spent his time mostly in his own house and usually did
not come out except for the purpose of offering five time
namaz and the congregational Friday prayer. His sons and
three or four other followers were allowed to see him inside
the house. 1 2 In the meantime Hashim Kishmi sought his
master's permission to depart to Burhanpur in order to look
after his family. The Shaikh permitted hj.m return with deep
sorrow. When Kishmi asked him to invoke for their next
meeting in the near futurer Shaikh Ahm^d Sirhindi drew a
sigh and said, "I invoke that we may gather in the
hereafter." The words caused great sorrow and grief to

Khwaja Hashmi. Any how he left for Burhappur.^

i

In Sha'ban 1033 A.H./ May 1624 A.D., Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi confined himself to a particular place in his
house. Now he appeared out side only on Friday to offer the
weekly congregation wherease daily five times prayers were
performed inside the home alongwith some devout followers,
and his own sons.3 Both Khwaja Hashim Kishmi and Maulana

1. Zabdat-ul-Maaamat . p. 284.

2. Ibid, pp. 284-85

Badruddin Sirhindi; Wisal-i-Ahmadi . Siyalkot, 1396/
1976, p.4

3 .

317

Badruddin Sirhindi say that the Shaikh in those days
reiterated a Hindi verse; (Today I will meet my beloved; Oh
friend I scarifice the whole world on this happy occasion)1
The Wisal-i-Ahmadi states that in 1033 A r H./ 1624 A.D., near
about six months before his death, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
wrote a letter to some Sadiq Khan in which he recommended a
needy person. The treatise contains the letter. He writes,
"you should know that since the Emperor |ias released me and
departed from the royal camp, I have been leading a secluded
life. By God's grace I am passing my time with great
satisfaction. As there occurs a natural calamity in this
city, it seems that I may not survive this year. Be you
pleased and happy."2 when his seclusion completed six or
seven months, the asthamatic decease, which would attach
Ahmad Sirhindi every year in winter, started to attack him
again. He also suffered from high fever on 17th Zil Ilijjah
1033/20the September 1624. It is reported that in the night
he felt great weakness. Afterwards he recovered to some
extent, later on, his condition was again serious. On 12th
Muharram 1034 / 15th October 1624 he indicated the place of

1. Ibid, p.6

2. Ibid, p.8

N.B. - But no volume of the Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani
contains thij^ letter.

3 13

his grave.1 But once again his condition increased and he
went to mosque to offer namaz . On 22nd Safar 1034/ 24th
November 1624 he asked his attcndatns that there would
occur some great event with the next ten days. The Next
morning he distributed garments ( Oaba ) to his followers same
he once again suffered from very high fever, lie therefore
went to bed but he Usually got up for offering Tahuiiud , He
is said to have stated that it was hi.s last mid-night
prayer 1 2 3 He asked some Hafiz Abdur Rashid to bring coal of
one rupee from the market and to burn fhem for creating
heat.^ Despite his deteriorating physical condition, the
Shaikh did not miss any of his prayers and litenies. He
exhorted hiw followers, sons and wife, and gave them
indications for his funeral etc. He asked them to perform
every rite and ritual in accordance with the rules of
Shariat ♦ He saind to his wife that very soon he would depart
from her and she, therefore, should spend her own money for
his coffin etc. He also desired to be buried either at any
unknown place or near the grave of his father. But on his
sons' submission he left the matter to them.^

1. Wisal-i-Ahmadi . p.10

2. Ibid, pp. 11-12

3. Ibid, pp. 12-13.
Ibid, pp. 15-16

4 .

119

The Shaikh died on Tuesday 28th Safar 1034 / 30th
November 1624 in the morning between the sun rise and the
meridian.1 The last words occured by him were about namaz .2
The Shaikh’s dead body was washed and shrouded in accordance
with the Shariat ♦ Khwaja Muhammad Saeed, the elder son of
the Shaikh, led the funeral prayer of hi£ illusteious father
as well as spiritual mentor. The dead body was buried in a
tomb, near the mosque inside the saint's own khanqah, where
his eldest son Khwaja Muhammad Sadiq already lied buried. A
number of supernatural events ( karamat ) are alleged to have
occured at the time of Ahmad Sirhindi's death.3

1. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . p. 290 Wisat-i-Ahmadi . pp. 17-18.

2. Ibid.

3. Zubdat-ul-Maqamat . pp. 293-94 Wisal-i-Ahmadi . p. 18

CHAPTER-IX

IMPACT OF SHAIKH AHMAD ON INDO-MUSLIM MYSTIC IDEOLOGY

32 J

CHAPTER IX

r

IMPACT OF SHAIKH AHMAD ON INDO-MUSLIM MYSTIC IDEOLOGY

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was a great personality of the
Mughal in India. His thought and religio-mystical activities
not only influenced his contemporaries but left deep impact
upon the posterity. It is the clear evidence of his
greatness and importance that for about four hundred year he
has been one of the most esteemed spiritual personality
among the Muslims of the Sub-continent ir\ particular and
the Muslims of the world in general. A number of works were
produced on him in Arabic, Persian, Urdu, English and other
languages by highlighting his biography, mystical concepts,
religious thoughtand his role as a sufi and alim in the then
religio political environment, and even still the efforts
are being made in this direction.

Born in a very religious sufi and scholarly family of
Sirhind Shaikh Ahmad, like his revered father. Shaikh Abdul
Ahad Faruqi, started his career as a staunch alim and stayed
for many years at Agra, the then capital of the Mughal
empire, where he came into contact with ulama , sufis and
scholars. There, he on one hand came to know, the spiritual
and scholarly setup of the society, on the other, he studied

the deteriorating condition of the thought processes of

Muslim religious class. At Agra Ahmad Sirhindi also
acquainted himself with the eminent nobles and officials of
the Mughal Court. His association with the ruling class
provided him with an opportunity to minutely observe the
situation at the royal court, especially Akbar's and his
companions hostile attitude towards Islam and the Muslims.
This is because , he raised opposition against Akbar's
religious experiments and his attempt to assume religious
leadership. He severely attacked Akbar by compiling a
treatise Ithbat-un-Nabuwwat . In this connection he produced
another brochure Radd-i-Rawafiz which refutes Shia faith and
indicates Shia influence at the Mughal court. Sirhindi
always looked upon the rulers as 'al£ soul' and the people
as 'all body'. According to him if the soul went wrong, the
body was bound to go astray. He declared, "The King's being
on the right path means that the world is on the right path;
his waywardness is waywardness of the whole world”. Durng
the closing years of Akbar's reign, {Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
started correspondence with a number of Mughal rulers, like
Nawab Murtuza Khan Shaikh Farid Bukhari, Khan-i-Azam, Abdur
Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Darab Khan, Lala Beg and Badiuzaman
etc., and exhorted them to use their influence in changing
the atmosphere of the court and put an end to the 'heretical
innovations' which were percolating through the court. We

322

have occn that these nobles played important role In the
occassion of Jahangir. The latter's gradual deviation from
Akbar's religious policies cannot be defied in any respect.
Jahangir's open support to Islamic norms and the Shariat
clearly indicates Ahmad Sirhindi's political role in the
Mughal politics. Sources revel that he was completely
successful in this direction.

So far as the mystical aspect of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
is concerned., it is appropriate to say that he reconciled
Sufism with the S ftiariat and asked the $ufis to base their
ideas and practices on Kitab-wa-Sunnah f i.e. the Quran and
the Hadith . However, his chief contribution to the sufi
thought was his enunciation of the theory of Wahdat-ush-
Shuhud . unity of Appearance. He disclosed through this
ideology that the experience of Wahdat~ul-Wuiud , unity of
being, which the mystic acquires at a certain stage of his
spiritual development is only subjective; it is not the
experience of objective fact. The objective reality is

l

different from what the mystic lies experience; and it is
Wahdat-ush-Shuhud . In other words the experience of
Wahadat-i-Wuiud is an intermediary stage in the mystic's
evolution. When he goes beyond by leaving behind this stage
during his spiritual experience and attains to still higher
stages, he realises that the stage of Wahdat-ul-Wuiud was

323

merely a subjective experience; the real stage is the stage
of Wahdat-ush-Shuhud . In nutshell this theory reveals the
Quranic as well as the Prophetic spirit and played a
significant role in bringing the mystics of Islam back to
the Holy Prophet.

I Moreover, Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi launched a wide
spread revivalist^movement by deputing his Khalifas to the
important cities and town in the Mughal empire and outside
the Indian frontiers. His efforts in this direction were so
deeply effective that it influenced nqt only the common
people, ulama . sufis and scholars of the time but got his
religious mission introduced at the Mughal Court as well. A
gradual change in the religious life and attitude of the
Mughal rulers cannot be contradicted. The results of
Sirhindi's revivalist efforts were undoubtedly far reaching
and durable. Even after several decades Shaikh Ahmad's
influence and greatness are evidently seen in the annals of
Islam in Indian sub-continent.

APPENDIX-A

CHRONOLOGY

APPENDIX-A

CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE OF SHAIKH AHMAD SIRHINDI

971 A.H./1564 A.D. Birth of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in

Sirhindi on Friday* 14th shawwal/
26th May.

972 A.H./1564-65 A.D. Shaikh Abdun Nabi was appointed as

Sadr-us-Suduf.

977/1569-70

986/1578

987/1579

989/1581

%

990/1582

991/1583

992/1584

998/1589-90

Birth of Prince Saleem

Foundation of the 'Ibadat Khana'
at Fatehpur j?ikri.

Declaration of 'Mahzar' by
proclaiming Akbar as supreme
religious leader of the Muslim of
India.

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, after
completing his education started
teaching at his father’s seminary
at Sirhindi, Beginning of the
'Din-i-Ilahi*.

Shaikh Ahmad's arrival at Agra.

Sirhindi's mooting with Abul Fazl.
'Ilahi Era' was introduced

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi held
polemical discussion held

polemical discussion with Abul
Fazl.

Compilation of the Ithbat-un-
Nabuwwat .

Shaikh Ahmad's father Shaikh Abdul
Ahad Faruqi reached Agra to take
his son back to Sirhindi.

Shaikh Ahmad left Agra for his
native town.

32o

999/1590

1000/1591-92

1005/1596-97

in the way they stayed at
Thanesar, met Shaikh Sultan
•fhanesari and the latter married
his daughter to Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi.

Shaikh Ahmad's arrival and
permanent st$y at Sirhind.

Compilation of the treatise Radd-
j-Rawafiz .

girth of Shaikh Ahmad's eldest son
Muhammad Sadiq.

girth of Khwaja Muhammad Ma'sum,
the second son of the Shaikh.

1006/1597-98

1007/1598-99

1008/1599-1600

Shaikh Ahmad's father conferred
upon his sqn the Khalifat and
authorised him to initiate
disciples into the Chichtiya and
Qadiriya silsilahs.

Khwaja Muhammad Saeed, the third
uon of Shaikh Ahmad, was born in
Sirhind.

Compilation of the Risalah-i-
Tahliliva . Death of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi's father. Shaikh Abdul
Ahad Faruqi.

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi left
Sirhindi with intention of Haii
and reached Delhi where he stay
with his sphool days' friend
Maulana Hasan Kashmiri. The latter
introduced him to Khwaja Baqi
gillah, who had recently settled
down in Delhi and earned great
fame among the inhabitants.

Shaikh Ahmad called on Khwaja Baqi
gillah at his Khanqah, joined his
mystic discipline and received
Khilafat from him into the
Maqshbandi silsilah.

326

1000/1600-1

1012/1603-4

1014/1605

1016/1607-8

1019/1610

After spending few months Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi gave up the ida of
11ai i and returned to Sirhind, and
started correspondence with his
Elt*

Death of Maulana Khwajgi Amkangi,
Khwaja Baqi Billah's spiritual
preceptor.

Shaikh Ahmad'? second visit to his
pir at Delhi and stay with him for
four months. Dn his return, Khwaja
Baqi Billah asked some of his
disciples to accompany the Shaikh
to Sirhindi for obtaining
spiritual training under him.

'Sadr-i-Jahan' and 'Khan-i-Azam'
joined Shaikh Ahmad's fold.

Sirhindi visited Baqi Billah third
time. The latter received his
k halifa very warmly at the door
Delhi. He also declared Shaikh
Ahmad as his Chief successor.

Sirhindi's arrival at Lahore and
meeting with the eminent ulama and
mashaikh ♦ A larger of the Muslims
joined his mystical disciplines.

Death of Khwaja Baqi Billah at
Delhi.

Shaikh Ahmgd reach Delhi and
joined his master's funeral.

Death of Akbgr.

Jahangir ascended the throne of
the Mughal empire.

Shaikh Farid Bukhari was conferred
upon with the title 'Murtuza
Khan'.

Shaikh Ahmad visited Delhi with
his son Khwaja Muhammad Sadiq.

Compilation of the ' Mabda'-wa-
Ma'ad'. '

1025/1616

1026/1617

1028/1619

1029/1620

1030/1620-21

1031/1622

1032/1622-23

Compilation of the first volumeof
the Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabba ni»

Plague spread in Sirhind and
Shaikh Ahmad's eldest son Khwaja
Muhammad Sadiq died at the age of
twenty five. Sirhindi's two more
sons, Muhammad Farrukh and
Muhammad Isa, and his daughter
Um'-i-Kulthum' also died by
becoming victim of the plague
epidemic.

Death of Shaikh Farid Bukhari.

Compilation of Ma'arif-i-Laduniva

The second volume of the Maktubat-
i-Imam-i-Rabbgni was compiled.

Jahangir summoned Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi to his royal Court at
Agra and order to be imprisoned
him in the Gwalior fort.

Release of the Shaikh. His meeting
with Jahangir who gave him the
role of honour and rupees one
thousand.

Shaikh Ahmad joined the royal army
at Jahangir's insistence.

Sirhindi visited Allahabad.

Shiakh Ahmacj's arrival at Ajmer
and stay at the daroah of Shaikh
Muinuddin Chishti.

Compilation of the Mukashifat-i-
Ainiya . Jahangir granted two
thousand rupees to the Shaikh.
Hashim Kishmi met and became
disciple of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.

Shaikh Ahmad finally reached and
permanently stayed at Sirhind.

323

1033/1623

1034/1624

1037/1627

Jahangir visited Sirhind to meet
the Shaikh.

Compilation pf the third volume of
the Maktubaf. by Khwaja Muhammad
Hashim Kishm^.

peath of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.

The Zubdat-uj-Maaamat .the detailed
piography of the Shaikh/ was
completed by Khwaja Hashim Kishmi.

APPENDIX-B

BIBLIOGRAPHY

323

APPENDIX-B

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Quran and Hadith Literature

Al-Ouran . (Arabic Text with an
English Translation by Abdullah Yusuf
Ali), Delhi, (5th edition), 1979.

Abu Dawud, Seistani

Baghawi, Abu Muhammad
al-Husain

Bukhari, Imam Muhammad
bin Ismail

Sunan-i-Abu Dawud . (An earliest
collection of Hadith # compiled during
the third century A.H.), Cairo, 1952.

Mishkat-ul-Masabih . (A famous

collection of Hadith . compiled in the
5th Century Hijri and contains 4434
Traditions of the Prophet of Islam,
mostly derived from Sahih al-Bukh ari
and Sahih a3,-Muslim ) . Delhi, (Arabic
text with Urdu translation), 1984.
English Translation by:

1. A.N. Mathews, Calcutta 1810

2. James Robson, Lahore 1960

Sahih al-Bukhari . (Also one of the
earliest ar^d most authentic as well
as important collections of Hadith .
compiled during the first half of the
3rd Century Hijri), Delhi, (Arabic
Text with Urdu Translation), 1984.

330

B. Works
Sirhindi,

of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi

Shaikh Ahmad Ithbat-un-Nabuwwat

Karachi, 1963
Lahore, 1965

Maarif Ladunniyah ,

Rampur, 1898
Lahore, 1957
Karachi, 1965

Mabda'wa Maad
Delhi, 1889
Kanpur, 1891
Karachi, 1984

Makhtubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani
Lucknow (Naw^l Kishore), 1877
Delhi (Matba'-i-Ahmadi), 1871
Delhi (Matba-*i-Mutadawi) , 1873
Amritsar, 1936,

Lahore, 1964

Istanbule, (Turkey), 1977

Mukashifat-i-Ainivah ,

Karachi, 1965

Risalah Radd-<i-Rawafiz
Lucknow, 1877,

Karachi, 1964,

Islanbul, (Tijrkey), 1977

Risalah-i-Tafrliliva
Karachi, 1965
Lahore, 1965

Sharh-i-Rubaivat
Karachi, 1965
Lahore, 1966

331

C. Works on Shaikl^ Ahmad Sirhindi:

Arabic and Persian Sources

Abdul Aziz, Shah Risalah dar I'tirazat

(MS), Raza Library, Rampur

Amrohi, Ahmad Husain Jawahir-i-M ui addidy a,

Lahore, n.d.

Ihsan, Khwaja ' Rauzat-ul-Qaivvuroiva (MS)

Kamaludding Muhammad M.A. Library, A.M.U., Aligarh

(Urdu Translation, Lahore, 1335 A.H.)

Kishmi, Khwaja
Muhammad Hashim

Rafiuddin, Shah

Saeed, Muhammad

Saleh, Muhammad

Sirhindi, Badruddin
Ibrahim

Siyakoti, Abdul Hakim
Waliullah, Shah

Zubdat-ul-Maaamat
Lucknow, 1885/ Kanpur, 1890

Damah-ul-Batil
Gujranwala, 1976.

Tashvid-ul~Mabani fi Takhrii-i-
Ahadith-i-^mam-i-Rabbani
Hyderabad, 1894

Hidayat-ut~Talibin ed. Abul Faiz
Faruqi, Karachi, 1965.

t

Hazarat-ul-Ouds .

Vol. I (MS), IOL, London
Vol. II, Lahore, 1971
(Urdu Trans. Vols. I & II
combined, f<ahore, 1922)

Wisal-i-Ahiftadi .

Siyalkoti, 1976

Rasail-ut-Taideed

Shfl -Wah id-j'-Taideed (M.s.)

M.A. Library, A.M.U. Aligarh

Tafhimat . Hyderabad, 1975.

Urdu Works

Abbasi, Ihsanullah Sawanih Umri Hazrat Muiaddid Alf-i-

Thani, Rampur, 1926.

332

Abdul Ahad

Ahmad, Muhammad Masud

Ali, Hasan Malik

Chishti, Yusuf Saleem
Dawud, Abdul Bayan

Faridi, Nasim Ahmad
Farman, Muhammad ^
Faruqi, Abdul Hasan Zayd

Hasan, Muhammad

Khan, Ghulam Mustafa

Khan, Siraj Ahmad

Mujaddidi, Ahmad Husain
Khan

Nadvi, Abul Hasan Ali

Mo jinuari-lla Lat wa. Maqamatri-llazrai
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi Delhi 1900

Khair-ul-Kalam , Lahore 1911

Sirat-i-Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani ,
Karachi,1976.

Ta'limat-i-Muiaddid ,

Sharaqpur, 1965.

Anwar-i-MuiaddjLdi . Lahore n.d.

Sirat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani , Amritsar,
1925

Taialliyat-i-Rftbbani . Lucknow, 1985

Havat-i-Muiaddid . Lahore, 1958

Haz rat Muiaddid aur Unke Naoidin ,
Delhi, 1977. '

Maqamat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani .

Lucknow, 1915.

Hazrat Muiaddid Alf-i-Thani , (Ek.
Tarikhi Jaiza ) Karachi, 1965

Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani ki Dini
wa Maashrati Aftmivat . Karachi, n.d.

Jawahir-i-Muiaddidiva
Lahore, n.d.

Tarikh-i-Dawat wa Azimat .

Vol. 4, Lucknow, 1980

Numani, Muhammad Manzur

Shahpuri, Abad

Sharaqpuri, Miyan
Jamil Ahmad

ed. Al-Furoan (Mujaddid Alf-i-Thani
number), Bareilly, 1357 A.H.

Tazkira Muiuddid-i-Alf-i-Thani .
Lucknow, 1982.

Hazrat Muiaddid Alf-i-Thani ke
Sivasi Maktubat . Lahore, 1977

Irshadat-i-Mujaddid . Lahore, n.d.

\

333

Siddiqui, Abdul Bari Maktubat-i-Imam-i-Rabbani bahaisiyat

Maakhz Imamiyat . Karachi, 1985.

Sikandarpuri, Wakil Ahmad Anwar-i-Ahmadiva ,

Delhi, 1892

Sulaiman, Muhammad
Zawwar Husain, Shah

%

Modern Works in English
Ansari, A.H.

Hadiva-i-Mui^ddid , Delhi, 1891.

Anwar-i-Ahmadiva , Hyerabad, 1963.

Hazxat_Mujaddi d -j- A lfirj- T hani/
Karachi, 1975.

Sufism and Sjiariah (A study of Shaykh
Ahmad Sirhindi's Effort to Reform
Sufism), Lei^estor, 1986.

Faruqi, B.A. The Muiaddid*s Conception of Tawhid .

„ Lahore 1940

r

Friedman, Yohanann Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (An outline of

his thought ’ and a history of his
image in the eyes of Posterity),
McGill (Canada), 1971

Rahman, Fazlur

Selected Letters of Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhiqdi . Karachi, 1968

D. The work which partly deal with or take note of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi:

Arabic and Persian Sources

Ali, Rahman

Tazkirah Ulam^-i-Hind ,
Lucknow, 1894

Ali, Shah Ghulam

M akatib-i-Shar ifa,
Lahore, 1371 A.H.

Ardistani, Ali Akbar
Hussaini

Maima-ul-Auliv a

(MS) Raza Library, Rampur

Beale, Thomas William
Baqa, Muhammad

Baqi Billah

ed. Mlftah -i
Kanpur, 1867

Mirat-i-Jahan Numa
Rotograph in history Deptt.
A.M.U., No.108.

Kullivat (Collection of his
letters, malfgzat , poetic verses
and mystic ideology), Lahore 1968

Bilgirami, Ghulam Ali
Azad

Dehlawi, Shaikh Abdul
Haqq Muhaddith

Faruqi, Maharuddin

Hamadani, Muhammad
Sadiq

Ilansi, Jalaluddin

Husain, Muhammad

Subhat-ul-Marxian fi Asar-i-Hindustan
Bombay, 1886

Akhbar-ul-Akhv ar.

Delhi, 1914

Manaaib-i-Ahmndiy a wa Maaamat-i-
Saeediya . Delhi, 1847.

Kalimat-us-Sadiqin (MS)

Deptt. of Iiisfoiy, A.M.U., Aligarh

Nuzhat-ul-Khwati r ,

Part: 4, Hyderabad, 1973
Part 5, Hyderabad, 1976

An war-ul-Arifin
Lucknow n.d.

Jahangir Tuzuk-i-Jahanairi

Aligarh, 1864

Kalan, Khwaja Ubaidullah

Khurd, Khwaja Abdullah
Ma'sum, Khwaja Muhammad

Muhammad Faqir

Mujaddidi, Muhammad
Fazlullah

Saeed/ Khwaja Muhammad
Sarwar, Ghulam

%

Shukoh, Dara
Ubaidullah, Muhammad

Waliullah, Shah •

Works in Urdu

Abdur Rahman, Syed
Sabahuddin

Ahmad, Abdur Rauf
Amrohi, Ahmad Husain
Arshad, Rashid Ahmad
Aslam, Muhammad

Mub l jqh -ur-Riial (MS)

M.A. Library, A.M.U., Aligarh

Malfuzat (MS), A.M.U., Aligarh

Maktubat-i-Mft‘sumiva ,

Lucknow, 1917

Hadaia-ul-Hanafiva
Lucknow, 1886

Umdat-ul-Maq^mat
Karachi, 1350 A.H.

Muktubat-i-Saeediva
Lahore 1385 A.H.

Kjja zina t^ul- Asf iva ,

Lucknow,1873
Kanpur, 1902

Safinat-ul-Auliva »

Lucknow 1884

Husanat-ul-Harmavn . edited &
Translated by M. Iqbal Mujaddidi,
Deru Ismail Jthan, 1981.

Anfas-ul-Arifin .

Delhi, 1917,

(Urdu Translation recently published
from Deoband f n.d.).

Bazm-i-Taimuriva # Azamgarh, 1988

Bazm-i-Sufiva * ^Azamgarh, 1984

Jawahir-i-Alwiva . Lahore, n.d.

Jawahir-i-Mar;umiva , Lahore, n.d.

Havat-i-Bagi . Karachi, 1969

Ta rikhi Maqa iq at . Delhi, 1970
Din Ilahi aur Uska Pasmanzar .
Delhi 1969

Sarmava-i-Umr . Lahore, 1966

333

Azad, Abdul Kalam
Din, Kalim Muhammad

Faridi, Nasim Ahmad

Tazkira , Delhi/ (Reprint)/ 1988.

Lahore men Auliva-i-Naashband ki
Saraarmivan , Lahore, 1968

Taiallivat-irrRabbani ,

Lucknow, 1985

Firangi Mahali, Abdul Bari Jami-ul-Muiaddidin ,

Lucknow, 1369 A.H.

Husain, Muhammad Halat-i-Mashaikh-i-Naqshban d_ly_a

Muiaddidiva . Lahore n.d.

Ikram, Shaikh Muhammad. Rud-i-Kausar (Reprint), Delhi, 1987

Maududi, Syed Abdul Ala Taideed wa Ihya-i-Din ,

Delhi (Reprint), 1986

Miyan, Muhammad

Ulama-i-Hind ka shandar Mazi ,

Vol. I, Delhi, 1985 (Reprint), 1985

Mujaddidi, Muhammad Iqbal Abdullah Khweshoi Qusuri ,

Lahore, 1972

Nizami, K.A.

Havat-i-Shaikh Abdul Haag Muhaddith
Dehlawi , Delfyi, 1953

Modern Works in English

Ahmad,

Aziz

Studies in Islamic Culture
in Indian Environment,

Oxford University Press 1965

i

Ahmad,

Qiyamuddin

m.

Wahadbi Movement in India,

Culcutta 19Q6.

Arnold

>

, T.W.

The Preaching of Islam,

London 1913

Ikram,

Shaikh Muhammad

Muslim Civilization in India,

New York, 1969

Iqbal,

Sir Muhammad

Reconstruction of Religious Thought
in Islam (Published by Jawed Iqbal),
Lahore, (Reprint), 1962.

Isik, Husain Hilmi

The Religious Reformers . Istanbul,
(Turkey), 1970.

Khan, Yusuf Husain^

Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture,
London, 1959

Malik, Hafiz

Muslim Nationalism in India and

Pakistan, Washinqton, 1963.

Mujeeb, Muhammad

The Indian Muslims, London, 1967

Nizami, K.A.

Akbar and Re|iaion, Delhi 1989

State and Culture in Medieval India,
Delhi 1985

Prasad, Beni

Historv of Jahanqir,

Allahabad 19<j2

Quraishi, I.H.

Akbar,

Delhi (Reprint) 1985

The Muslim Communitv of India
Pakistan Sub-continent,

Delhi (Reprint) 1985

The Administration of the Muqhal
Empire, DelhJ (Reprint), n.d.

Ulama-i-Politics, Karachi. 1972.

Rizvi, S.A.A.

Muslim Revivalist Movement in
Northern India (In the XVI & XVII
Centuries), Agra, 1965

Sharda, S.R.

Sufi Thouqht.

Delhi, 1974

Sharma, S.R.

The Relioious Policy of the Muqhal
Emperors

Bombay, (Reptint), 1962

Singh, Fauja

ed. Sirhind Throuqh the Aqes,
Patiala, 1972

Storey, C.A.

Persian Literature, London, 1972

Subhan, John A.

Sufism, Its faints and Shrines,

Lucknow, 1938

333

Tripathi, R.P.

The Rise and Fall of the Mughal
Empire , Allahabad (Reprint), 1985

Yasin, Muhammad

A ..Social.

Lucknow, 1958.

9

E. Other Works

Arabic and Persian Sources

Abdul Aziz, Shah

333

Abdur Rahman

Abul Fazl

Afif, Sham-i-Sirja
Ahmad, Nizamuddin

Tuhfa-i-Asng Ashriva ,

Delhi, 1266 A.H.

Si rat Imam flehdi Mawud .
Hyderabad, 1369 A.H.

Ain-i-Akbarj . . Lucknow, 1£82
Akbar Nama . Calcutta, 1886

Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi .
Calcutta 18‘)1

Tabaqat-i-Akbari .

Calcutta 1927

Al-Muwahhid, Shah
Abudr Rahman

Kalmat-ul-Haq #
Lucknow, 1806

Badayuni, Abdul Qadir

Bahrul Ulum,
Mulla Abdul Ali

Bhakkari,

Shaikh Farid

%

Muntakhab-u.l-Tawarikh .

Volumes II $ III,

Calcutta, 1069

Naiat-ur-Raphid
ed. S. Moinul Haq,

Lahore, 197?:.

Risalah Wahdat-ul-Wuiud
Delhi, 1391, A.H.,

(Urdu Translation, Delhi, 1970)

Zakhirat-ul'-Khawanin ,

Vol. I, Karachi, 1961

Bilgirami, Ghulam Ali Rauzat-ul-Auliva .

Azad Hyderabad, 1310 A.H.

Burkhanuddin, Bandigi Shawahid-ulr-Wilavat ,

Hyderabad, I960

Faizi, Abdul Faiz Sawati-ul-Ilham ,

Lucknow, 1889

Fani, Muhsin

Dabistan-i-Mazahib
Lucknow, 1281 A.H.

3',d

Ghazzali, Imam Muhammad

Hasan, Saiyid Siddiq

Ibn-i-Arabi, Shaikh
Nuhiyiddin

Jamali , Hamid bin
Fazlullah

Ihva-ul-Ulum-id-Din

Cairo, 1800, (English Translation,

Delhi, 1984)

Abiad-ul-Ul um
Bhopal, 12$6 A.H.

Fusus-ul- Hikam ,

Cairo, 1252 A.H.,

(Urdu Translation, Hyderabad 1942)

Futuhat-i-Makkiva ,

Cairo, 133$ A.H

i

Sivar-ul-Ai;ifin ,

Delhi, 1893

Jami, Abdu r Rahman

Nafahat-ul-Uns .
Tehran, 1938

Kashifi, Ali bin Rashahat-i-rAin-ul-Havat .

Husain al-Waiz Lucknow, 1890.

Kaya, Sadiq

Nuatawivan va Pasikhaniyan .
Tehran, 1320 A.H.

Khan, Shah Nawaz

Ma 1 asir-ul-Umara . Vol. II
Calcutta, 1888

Khan, Miyan Mansur Jannat-ul-Wilavat

Hyderabad, '1376 A.H.

Khurd, Amir Sivar-ul-Auliva # Delhi,1885

Munshi, Askandar Ta rikh -i-Alam A ra-i-Abbasi ,

Vol. II, Tehran 1314, A.H.

Nahawandi, Abdul Baqi a si hi mi, Vol. I

Baptist Mission Press, 1924

Ruknuddin, Shaikh Latif-i-Ouddusi

Delhi, 1311 A.H.

Shattari, Muhammad
Ghauthi

Gulzar-i-Abrar .

Rotograph (No.174) in the Research
Library, Hist. Deptt., A.M.U.,
Aligarh.

(Urdu Translation Agra, 1326 A.H.)

Shustari, Qazi
Nurullah

Waliullah, Shah ‘

Yadgar, Ahmad

Maialis-ul-Muminin

Izalat-ul-K^ifa an Khilafat-jl-
Khulafa . Urdu Trans. Karachi,
n.d.

Tazkira-i-HMmavun wa Akbar ,

Urdu Works

Abdur Rahman, Syed
Sabahuddin

Ikram, Shaikh Muhammad
Nazir Ahmad

Nizami, K.A.

Modern Works in English
Affifi, A.E.

Hardy, Peter
Maclagan, Sir Edward
Mehta, Nowroze Cooverji
Nizami, K.A.

Bazm-i-Sufiva . Azamgarh, 1984

Aab-i-Kausay . Delhi, 1987

Tarikhi wa Adabi Maaalat #

Aligarh, 1961

Salatin-i-Dehli ka Mazhabi Ruihamat .
Delhi, 1981

Tarikhi Maq^lat . Delhi, 1960

Tarikh-i-Mashaikh-i-Chisht ,

Vol. I, Delfyi, 1980.

The Mystical Philosophy of
Muhivuddin Ibnul Arabic .

Cambridge, 1939

Sorces of India Traditions ,

New York, 1959

The Jesuits and the Great Mogul .
London, 1932

The Religious Policy of Akbar .
Bombay, 1946

Some Aspects of Religion and
Politics during the 13th Century #
Delhi, (Reprint), 1974

The Life and Times of Shaikh
Fariuddin Ganii-Shakar .

Delhi, 1955

3 U

Philips, C.H.

ed. Historians of India, Pakistan
and Cevlone, London, 1961

Rafiqi, A.Q.

Sufism in Kashmir,

Delhi, 1976

Ross, Denison and

Eileen Power

Akbar and the Jeuits,

Delhi, 3979

Roychoudhary, M.L.

The Din-i- Ilahi,

Delhi, 1905

Shustary, a.M.a.

Outlines of Islamic Culture,
Bangalore, 1954

Smith, V.A.

Akbar, the Great Mooul,

Delhi, 1966

Tara Chand

Influence of Islam on Indian
Culture, Allahabad, 1946

Tariq Ahmad

The Raushaniya Movement,

Delhi, 19Q2

Trimingham, J. Spencer

Sufi Orders in Islam,

London, 1^71

Umaruddin, M.'

The . Ethical . Philosophy. of ....

Ghazzali, Aliciaih, 3962.

343

F. ARTICLES
English and Urdu

Ahmad, Aziz

Ahmad, Idris

Aslam, Muhammad

Beg, Mirza Qadir

Farman, Muhammad

Faruqi, B.A.

Haq, Enamul

Ishtiaq, Muhammad

Habib, Irfan M.

Hasan, Murtuza

"F.ejl 3 gious and Political Ideas
of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi".

Fevist a degl i_ Studj_ ori enta 1 i ,

Vo. 36, 1961, pp. 259-70.

"Hazarat Mujaddid Alf-i-Thani"
Sifarat -i-Rubra Hindi,

Kabul, Vol, XII, July 1987

"Jahangir and Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi", Journ al of the
Asiatic Soc iet y o f Pakist an ,

Vol. X, pp t 135-48.

"The two concepts of Tawhid",

Muslim New In terna tional , II,

July 1963

"Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi", A Histor y
of Mu slin^ Philosophy ed. M.M.
Sharif, Vol. II, Wiesbaden 1966,
pp. 873-83

"Hazrat Mujaddid aur Unke Naqidin
per ek Nazar", BujrJiaji, April
1980, pp. 56-60

"Sufi Movement in Bengal", Indo-
Islamic . Vol. Ill, No.l,

July 1948.

"Hazara! Mujaddid Alf-i-Thani aur
Faizi wa Abdul Fazl ke ta'lluqat per
ek Nazar", piaarif . Azarogarh, Vol.
137, April 1985, pp. 289-300.

"The Political Role of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi and Shah Waliullah",
£naui_Ey» Vol.5, 1961, pp. 36-55 /
Also Proceeding of I.H.C. ,
(Aligarh) I960.

"Letters of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi; A
new source p£ Historical study".

The. Proceedingrt of. the. IIIC,

IX session (Patna) 1946, pp. 273-81.

Hasan, Syed Nurul

Inayatullah, S.

Khan, Majid Ali

Nizami, K.A.

Usmani, M. Atiqur
Valiuddin, Mir

"Shaikh Ahmnd Sirhindi and
Mugha] Politics", Pro cee dings o f
IHC m 1945, pp. 248-57.

"Ahmad Sirhindi", Encyclopaedia_o f
Islam, Vo3. I, Lciden-London 3960,
pp. 297-98.

"Tasawwuf ki Haqiqat; Hazrat
Mujaddid ki Tajdeed-i-Tasawwuf",
Al-Furaan , March 1978

"Early Indo-Muslim Mystics and
their Attitude Towards the states",
Islamic culture . Vol. XXII, (1948),
pp. 387-98, Vol. XXIII (1949),
pp. 73-83, 162-170, 312-21,

Vol. XXIV (1950), pp. 60-71.

"Naqshbandi Influence on Mughal
Rulers and Politics",

Islamic Culture, Vol. 39,

1965, pp.41-52.

"The Shattari saint and their
attitude towards the state",
Medieval India Quarterly, Vol.I,
Mo.2, Oct. 3*950.

"The Suhar wardj sj.1sj.3ah and its
Influence on medieval Indian
Politics", M ed. In d. Ourt.. Vol.Ill,
No.1 & 2 Juiy - Oct. 1957.

Raliman "Mekl ubai -i--('u jacVid-j-A3fa-i-Thani

B urhan . August^1973, pp.127-35.

"Peconci3iatJon Between Tbn-i-
Arobi’s Wa^dat-ul-Wu jud and tlic
Mujaddid’s wahdat-ush-Shudud",

Islamic Cu lture . Vol.XXV, 3953,
pp.43-53.